Research Methods Flashcards
what’s the experimental method?
it’s the manipulation of an independent variable to have an effect on the dependent variable. these experiments can be field, lab, natural or quasi.
what’s the aim of a study?
a general statement by researchers that tell us what they plan to investigate and the purpose. the aim develops from theories.
what’s the hypothesis?
a precise statement that clearly states the relationship between the variables being investigated.
what’s a directional hypothesis?
it states the direction of the relationship that will be shown between the variables. directional is used when there is prior research related to the aim.
what’s a non-directional hypothesis?
the direction of the relationship could go either way. it’s used when there is no previous research.
what’s the independent variable?
the part of the experiment that has been manipulated by the researcher or changed naturally to have an effect on the DV.
what’s the dependent variable?
it’s measured by the researcher and has been caused by a change to the IV. all other variables that could affect the DV has to be controlled.
what’s an extraneous variables?
any variable that is not the IV that affects the DV and doesn’t vary systematically with the IV.
what’s confounding variables?
any variables that isn’t the IV however it does change systematically with the IV. it’s difficult for the researcher to be sure of the origin for the ffect of the DV.
what’s demand characteristics?
any cue that the researcher may give to make the participant feel like they can guess the aim of the study, causing them to act differently. they make act how they think the researcher want them to act (Please-U effect) or try and sabotage the study (screw-U effect).
what’s investigator’s effect?
any unwanted influence, from the researcher’s behaviour, consciously or unconsciously, on the DV. things like the design of the study, participant selection or participant interaction.
what’s randomisation?
to minimise effects of unwanted variables, it’s the use of chance to reduce the effects of bias from investigator effect.
what’s standardisation?
using the exact same formalised procedures and instruction for every single participant involved. this can eliminated extraneous variables.
what’s a lab experiment?
it takes place in a special environment where different variables can be controlled. + high control of variables, leading to greater accuracy. - low ecological validity as the experiment is artifical and not real-life.
what’s a field experiment?
conducted in a natural environment but variables are still controlled. + naturalistic meaning high ecological validity. - ethical issues, invasion of privacy.
what’s a quasi experiment?
the IV has not been determined by researcher but naturally exists. + controlled conditions means can be replicated, high internal validity. - can’t randomly allocate participants, may be confounding variables
what’s a natural experiment?
the IV wasn’t brought in by researcher so will happen whether they are there or not. + high external validity as it’s dealing with real life situations. - natural occuring events are rare so can’t be replicated or generalised.
what’s oppotunity sampling?
participants happen to be avaliable at the time are recruited conveniently. + time and cost saving. - not representative of the whole population.
what’s random sampling?
when all member of the population have an equal chance of being selected. + no researcher bias. - time consuming to pick people.
what’s systematic sampling?
a predetermined system where nth member is selected. + avoids researcher bias. - not unbiased if you use a random number generator.
what’s stratified sampling?
the composition of the sample reflects varying proportions of people in sub-groups within a wider population. you identify the strat and calculate the required proportion. + no researcher bias. - time consuming to identify strata.
what’s volunteer sampling?
involves self-selection where participants offer themselves to take part. + quick access to willing participants. - volunteer bias, may attract a particular profile of a person.
what’s independent group design?
the participants only perform in 1 condition of the IV. + participants are less likely to guess the aim. - no control over participant variables whereby different abilities of participants in the various conditons.
what’s the solution to independent group design?
random allocation solves lack of control over participant variables. it ensures each participant has equal chance of being in either condition.
what’s repeated measures?
the same participants take part in all conditions of IV. + eliminates participant variables. - order effects presented, participants may get bored by the second condition.
what’s the solution to repeated measures?
counter-balancing. half the participants do conditions in one order and the other half do it the other order.
what’s matched pair design?
pair of participants are matched on some variables that have been found to affect the DV, then one member does one condition and the other does another. + no order effect or demand characteristics. - time consuming and exxpensive.
what’s a pilot study?
a small-scale version of an investigation which is done before the real study is started. it allows potential problems to be identified so the study can be modified.
what’s a single-blind procedure?
when the researcher doesn’t tell the participants if they are being given a test or control treatment. this prevents bias and demand characteristics.
what’s a double-blind procedure?
where the researcher and participants don’t know who’s receiving which treatment is being given. this prevents bias. it reduces investigator effect as the researcher can’t unconsciously give clues.
what’s the control group/condition?
it sets a baseline where the results from the experimental condition can be compared from this one. if there’s a signifcant change, it means the cause of effect is the IV
what’s naturalistic observation?
watching behaviour where it normally takes place. + high ecological / external validity. - uncontrolled extraneous / confounding variables.
what’s controlled observation?
watching behaviour in a structured environment. + easily replicated and controlled variables. - low mundane realism so low ecological validity.
what’s overt observation?
the participants are aware they are being recorded. + ethical acceptable. - demand characteristics are likely.
what’s covert observation?
the participants are unaware they’re being watched and recorded. + high internal validity. - ethical issues as informed consent isn’t being given.
what’s participant observation?
the researcher is apart of the group that is being observed. + more insightful and increases validity. - researcher may lose objectivity as they start to identify too strongly with the group.
what’s non-participant observation?
the researcher is observing from a distance and isn’t apart of the group. + researcher can be more objective as doesn’t identify the group. - open to observer bias
what’s observer bias?
when an observer’s reports are biased by what they expected to see. a solution is checking the inter observer reliability.
what’s unstructured observation design?
continuous recordings where the researcher writes everything they see. + more depth and detail. - qualititative date which is difficult to record and analyse.
what’s a structured observation design?
the researcher quantifies what they’re observing using predetermined lists of behaviours. + quantative data is easy to analyse. - not much depth of detail
what are behavioural categories?
when a target behaviour which is being observed is broken up into more precise components which are observable and measurable. the categories can’t overlap.
what’s time sampling?
the recording of the behaviour is in a pre-establishing time frame. + reduces the number of observation. - unrepresentative of the interaction.
what’s event sampling?
counting the number of times a particular behaviour is carried out. + good for infrequent behaviour that time sampling might be missed. - important details may be overlooked
what’s a correlation?
a mathematical technique that is used to investigate an association between two variables. the variables are measured and only an association is found.
what are the types of correlation?
positive = when one variable increases, so does the other. the line of best fit has a positive gradient. negative = when one variable increases, the other decreases. the line of best fit has a negative gradient. zero = no relationship is found.
what’s a curvilinear relationship?
as one variable increases, so does the other but only to a certain point after which one variable continues to increase, the other decreases
what are the strengths of correlation?
can be used as a starting point to assess patterns between co-variables. quick and economical. less time consuming.
what are the weaknesses of correlations?
difficult to establish cause and effect, there’s a chance there is a third variable. can be misused or misinterpretated.
what’s qualitative data?
data displayed in words. non-numerical. + more richness and depth. greater external validity. - difficult to analyse and make comparisons. researcher bias.
what’s quantitative data?
numerical data. + analysed statistically and can be compared. - lack of detail and not meaningful insight.
what’s content analysis? (1 mark)
a technique for analysing data according to themes or categories.
what’s primary data?
when information is obtained first hand by researcher. + targets exact information needed.it’s specific to the aim of the study. - takes time and expensive.
what’s secondary data?
when information hasn’t been collected by the researcher but they still use it. + minimal effort to collect. - outdated or incomplete or unreliable.
what’s meta-analysis?
when researchers combine results from different studies and use data to form an overall view. + easily generalisable. - file drawer problem, where the researcher leaves out negative results.
what are measures of central tendency?
mode = most frequent value. median = central value. mean = total sum of values divided by number of values.
what are measures of dispersion?
range = highest score minus lowest. + easy. - affected by extreme values. standard deviation = square root of the variance. calculates data spread. + precise with all values used. - difficult to calculate.
how does a table represent data?
the data is converted into descriptive data.
how do bar charts represent data?
it allows the differences between data be more clear. it uses descrete data that has been divided into categories. the bars are seperated to show it’s different conditions. x-axis is categories, y-axis is frequency
how do histograms represent data?
the bars are touching, it’s continuous data. the x-axis has equal sized intervals of 1 category.
how do line graphs represent data?
it represents continuous data, points are connected by lines to show the change in values. the IV is on the x-axis, the DV is on the y-axis.
how do scattergrams represent data?
they show association between co-variables rather than differences.
what’s normal distribution?
a symmetrical pattern of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern.
what’s skewed distribution?
a spread of frequency data that isn’t symmetrical but clusters at one end. positive skew = the data is concerntrated on the right. negative skew = the data is concerntrated on the left.
what’s peer review?
the assessment of scientific work by experts in the same field. it’s done to ensure all research published is of high quality, to know which research is worthwhile, to validate the relevance and quality and to suggest possible improvements.
what’s weaknesses of peer review?
- publication bias = editors prefer to publish headline grabbing findings. this means negative results aren’t shared, leading to misconception of the current state of psychology. 2. it’s difficult to find an expert. Smith argued this is because there was lots of poor research passed as the reviewers didn’t understand the work. 3. any research that opposes mainstream theories are suppressed meaning most new ideas are shut down.
what’s implications to the economy?
how what we learn from psychological research influences the economy. absence from works costs £15 billion a year and the absences is due to mental illnesses.
what’s psychopathology’s implications to the economy?
CBT treatment emotional behavioural therapy. workers are able to return to work.
what’s attachment’s implications to the economy?
the role of the father. Field found that fathers can be primary caregivers. mothers can return to work, more flexible working arrangements, can maximise income.
what’s social influence’s implication to the economy?
minority influence, normative social influence, disobedient models. health campaigns, union strikes to make better working conditions, environmental campaigns - getting companies to reduce waste and energy.
what’s memory’s implication to the economy?
eyewitness testimony, leading questions or post-event discussion. led to cognitive interview which reduces wrongful conviction.
what are case studies?
a detailed study into a person’s life which covers great detail into their background. it is usually carried out in the real world . they are idographic and very individualistic.
how can confidentiality be maintained in case studies?
making sure the individual are not identifiable when reporting case study. this can be done by using a different name or initial, avoiding publishing details of address
what’s the strengths of case studies?
detailed so able to gain in depth insight. forms basis for future research. you can infer things about normal human behaviour. permits investigation that is ethical and practical.
what are the weaknesses of case studies?
not generalisable to wider population as each individual’s experience is unique. evidence from past may be difficult to generalise. various interviewer bias are present - social desirability. retrospective studies rely on memory which may be inaccurate. time consuming and can’t be replicated.
what’s content analysis?
studying human behaviour indirectly by studying things that we produce. this allows us to have insight into the structured values, beliefs and prejudices.
how to conduct a content analysis?
identify hypothesis that you can investigate. create a coding system. gather resources. conduct content analysis and record data in a table. analysis descriptive and qualitative data. write a report.
what’s the strengths of content analysis?
strong external validity as data is already in the real world so high mundane realism. produce quantitative and qualitative data so easy to analyse. ethical issues are avoid as the data is in the public domain.
what’s the weaknesses of content analysis?
observer bias is present. interpretive bias - the researcher may ignore something but pay more attention to other things.
what’s norminal data?
it’s in the form of categories. it’s discrete. it doesn’t enable sensitive analysis as it doesn’t yield a numerical result.
what’s ordinal data?
it’s represented in ranking form. there’s no equal interval between each unit. it lacks precision as it’s based on peoples subjective opinions.
what’s interval data?
it’s based on numerical scales which include equal units of precisely defined data. it’s based on objective measures.
what’s the abstract part of a scientific report?
a summary of all the key details of the report. it includes the aim, hypothesis, method, results and conclusion. it tells whether the research is worth examining.
what’s the introduction part of a scientific report?
information of past research on a similar topic whereby relevant theories, studies and concepts are mentioned. it tends to be broad and become more specific later in the report.
what’s the method part of a scientfic report?
a description of what the researchers did when they undertook the study. this includes the design, sample, material and procedure.
what’s the result part of a scientific report?
all the findings from the research, presented even with inferential and descriptive statistics
what’s the discussion part of a scientific report?
where the researcher considers what the findings mean for us and for psychological theories.
what’s the referencing part of a scientific report?
a list of all the sources were quoted or referred to in the report. this can be journal articles, website or books.
what’s a sign test?
a way of determining whether the hypothesis should be rejected or accepted. it tell us whether the relationship between co-variables that’s been found are statistically significant.
what is a sign test used for?
for a study that looks for differences not associations, used a related experiemental design, collected nominal data.
how to conduct a sign test?
- state the hypothesis. 2. record data and work out sign. 3. find the calculated value for the sign test S. 4. find the critical value. if S is less than critical value, reject null hypothesis. if S is more than critical value, accept null hypothesis. 5. state a conclusion
what to consider when choosing an inferential statistical test?
- the design of the study - if it’s related or unrelated design. 2. the level of data - ordinal, norminal or interval. 3. whether it’s a difference or a correlation being measured.
what are statistical tests used for?
they determine whether a significant difference or correlation exists. it uses the calculated value and critical value. the critical value is worked out from a table of probablity value and depends on: whether it’s one or two tailed, the P value and and the N value.
what’s the rule of R?
if there is an R in the name of the statistical test, the calculated value has to be greater than the critical value for the result to be significant and the null hypothesis can be rejected.
what’s probablity?
how likely an event is to happen. 0= statistically impossible. 1= statistically certain. the usual level of significance is 0.05.
what’s significance?
It tells us how sure we are about a correlation or difference existing. if significant, we reject the null hypothesis. the null hypothesis is no difference or correlation between the conditions and the alternative hypothesis states there is a difference.
what’s a type 1 error?
the incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis which is actually true. they claim to have found a significant difference when actually there isn’t.
what’s a type 2 error?
the failure to reject the null hypothesis that is false. they claim there is no signficance difference when there actually is.
what’s a paradigm?
a set of shared ideas and assumptions within a scientific discipline.
what’s a paradigm shift?
a significant change in these central assumptions within a scientific discipline, resulting in scientific revolution. Kuhn suggested that paradigms shows progress within a science. psychology is a pre-science because it has too much disagreement or conflicting approaches.
what’s a theory?
a set of general principles and laws which can be used to explain scientific events or behaviour.
what’s theory construction?
it takes place through gathering evidence from direct observation during investigations.
what’s deduction?
the process of deriving new hypotheses from existing theories.
what’s falsifiability?
it states a theory can’t be considered scientific unless it allows itself to be proven untrue. Sciences that can’t be proven wrong are pseudosciences.
what’s replicability?
it’s the extent to which scientific methods and their results can be repeated by other researchers across other contexts and circumstances.
what’s objectivity?
when all possible biases have been minimised so they don’t influence or distort the research.
what’s the empirical method?
when evidence is collected through making direct observations and through direct experiences. a theory isn’t scientific until it’s been empirically proven.
evidence that psychology is a science?
producses intuitive results which are against common sense. scientific methods are used giving them scientific credibility. findings have positive impact on society.
evidence that psychology isn’t a science?
experiment intrepretation can be subjective. not all research is generalisable. inferences are often made rather than directly measuring it.
what’s informed consent?
participants must be told the purpose of the investigation and any potential risks they may be subject to. it allows them to make the decision whether they want to participate. researchers don’t like to disclose as it can lead to demand characteristics resulting in bias.
what’s a solution to informed consent?
prior general consent - participants gives permission to take part. presumptive consent - when the researcher gathers opinions but doesn’t inform the actual participant. retrospective - when participants are asked for consent after they’ve participated.
what’s deception?
deliberately withholding information from participants or misleading them during research. this is only acceptable when participants could guess the aim.
what’s the solution to deception?
debriefing = all participants are debriefed after the study, written or verbal. during the study, the true nature must be said and participants should be told what their data will be used for. they then have the right to withdraw.
what’s protection from harm?
participants must be protected from physical and psychological harm, it’s the researcher’s job. all through the investigation, participants are reminded they can withdraw.
what’s the solution of protection of harm?
if the participants has been subjected to stress, then the researcher should provide counselling. a cost-benefit analysis should been done by weighing out the pros or cons.
what’s privacy and confidentiality?
right of privacy refers to the participant controlling information about themselves. it’s difficult to avoid invading privacy in a natural environment. confidentiality is the right of a participants have concerning personal data.
what’s a solution to privacy and confidentiality?
anonymity can be maintained by not recording any personal details so none of the results can be traced back. initials can be used.
what’s self-report technique?
any method where a person is asked to give their opinions or behaviour on a particular topic. questionaire = assesses a persons thoughts and feelings through a number of different questions. interview = a live encounter where a set of questions is asked by an interviewer to assess thoughts
what are open questions in a questionaire?
when the questions are phrased in a way the participants are free to answer however they want. it collects qualitative. + rich in depth and detail. - can’t convert to statistical data
what’s are closed questions in a questionaire?
consists of questions that restrict you to a fixed number of responses. it collects quantative data. + easy to analyse - limiting responses.
what are the strengths of questionaire?
+ cost effective + gathers large amount of data + easy to analyse + researcher doesn’t need to be present. + anonymous so participants are more open.
what are the weaknesses of questionaires?
- take a long time to design. - difficult to assess validity as bias are present. response and participant bias are present.
what needs to be considered when designing questionaire?
clarity -
what’s investigator’s effect?
this is when a person collecting the data has knowledge on the aim of the study.
