Research Methods Flashcards
Describe Qualitative Data?
-Descriptive, non-numerical information, such as generated by open-ended questions, unstructured interviews etc.
-Difficult to analyse statistically & therefore to generalise from.
-Greater validity as provides more detail & means answers can be explored in more depth making conclusions more meaningful; comes direct from the participant so more ecologically valid (IE PPS own experiences and values)
-Qualitative data can be broken down into quantitative data (IE by analysing themes & trends that arise BUT quantitative data cannot generate qualitative date).
Describe Quantitive Data?
-Information is numerical in nature, such as generated by closed questions, likert scales etc.
-Numerical data only tells you how often behaviour occurs, not the underlying motivation for behaviour, reduces thoughts & attitudes to numbers which undermines validity.
-Data that is more likely to be drawn from controlled situations EG laboratory experiments, therefore is reliable as it is easy to collect, repeat, easy to analyse and therefore to generalise from and is more objective, as it doesn’t require subjective interpretation of PPS responses to open-ended questions.
-Easy to compare PPS responses.
Give a description of the method of closed questions.
Contains fixed/ limited responses as PPS select answers the at apply to them through 1 word and yes or no answers.
Likert scales, multiple choices, yields Quantative data.
It is useful for questions with finite, clear-cut answers.
What are the strengths of the method of closed questions?
Reliable, easy to replicate, easy to interpret & statistically analyse answers, objective, can be large scale. Well controlled as it requires PPS to answer in defined way.
What are the weaknesses of the method of closed questions?
Low validity: demand characteristics, socially desirable answers, little detail, superficial. Only tells you how not why.
Longer questions can lead to fatigue/ boredom. You may need to know the range of answers to the questions. May be low response rate.
What is the description of the method of open questions?
Can be answered how participant chooses, without restriction, words nor numerical response, allows PPS to explain answers & express opinions, yields expressive data: may generate unexpected content that gives researchers nee lines of enquiry.
What are the strengths of the method of open questions?
Detailed, more valid: offers flexibility to PPS; good way of accessing motivations & feelings, good if you don’t know the range of possible answers to put in closed questions.
What are the weaknesses of the method of open questions?
Low reliability, subjective interpretation, therefore more difficult to validity interpret & harder to analysis statistically, more time consuming, therefore harder to replicate/ generate large amounts of data/ responses.
Describe surveys.
Questionnaires & interviews generate self-report data, IE information elicited from questions which relies on the participants reporting their own behaviour, feelings, attitudes etc. This information can come from open and closed questions & likert/ ranking scaled (gives PPS more flexibility in their responses, whilst still easy to interpret and analyse).
What are the strengths of surveys? (3)
Allows more detailed access to PPS thoughts & feelings.
Enables psychologists to investigate what PPS might think, feel or do in the future.
PPS answer about their own experiences, so good for ecological validity.
What are the weaknesses of surveys? (3)
Relies on PPS being honest, articulate & insightful, which might not always be the case.
PPS may feel they need to give socially desirable answers IE in order to appear in a more positive light, PPS responses reflect current social norms & values, not real attitudes.
The purpose of the research might be easy to indenting, leading to demand characteristics.
What are Likert/ Ranking scaled?
Involve PPS selecting from a fixed set of choices to rate their agreement with a series of statements IE not just a yes/ no response. Adornos research on Authoritarianism involved likert scales.
What is a Likert scale?
Involve PPS rating their opinions/ attitudes.
What is a ranking scale?
Involve PPS ranking their choice relative to other options.
What are the strengths of a Likert/ ranking scale? (2)
Easy to analyse, compare data, less time consuming than open questions so may get more PPS & more data. As a result may be easier to replicate, generate reliability, & be more generalisable if a big sample is easier to obtain.
Gives more flexibility to PPS in their response choices than closed questions so responses more likely to reflect PPS views/ opinions.
What are the weaknesses of a Likert/ ranking scale? (4(
-Does not generate the depth/ detail/ quality of responses of insight that might be generated by open questions & qualitative data. As a result PPS responses may not accurately reflect their opinions about the topic being investigated.
-The options available might not match the PPS views IE may be restrictive not enabling the PPS to answer accurately, so reducing validity.
-The operationalisation of the scale may be problematic/ flawed IE each number on the scale may represent something different. There is subjectivity in what the numbers represent. This reduces the validity of the research as responses may not accurately reflect what the PPS thinks of feels: also undermines reliability, as results aren’t consistent.
-Response/ acquiescence effect.
What is a description of questionnaires?
A set of predetermined questions, aimed at eliciting the attitudes of PPS about an issue. Questionnaires can be given out to individuals or groups to complete in the presence of the researcher. They can be conducted over the phone. They can be carried out in absence of the researcher. Questionnaires can be sent out by post or internet.
What are the strengths of questionnaires?
Can be time and cost effective since they can quickly administered to large numbers of PPS, making them potentially more generalisable & reliable.
When completed privately & anonymously they can provide honest data, improving validity.
The reduced involvement of the researcher reduces the risk of researcher influence/ effects on the behaviour of PPS.
Can generate both qualitative and quantitate data through open and closed questions.
What are the weaknesses of questionnaires?
Response rates can be poor when administered in the absence of the researcher, thus making it difficult to generalise findings.
It may be that only certain types of people return them EG those who are motivated or who have the time, so results may only represent a certain type of person.
It might be difficult to phrase questions in ways that are not open to interpretation by the PPS.
What is a description of interviews?
Researchers & PPS engage in face to face conversation, so that rather than responding to written questions they respond to the verbal questions of the researcher.
The way that such questions are asked can be either very fixed or have more flexibility.
What are the strengths of interviews?
A well conducted interview can address sensitive issues that other methods are unable to.
A good source or qualitative data.
What are the weaknesses of interviews?
PPS responses can be influenced by the researcher (researcher effects).
Interviews work best with PPS who are confident, honest and articulate.
Interviews are highly dependent on the skills of the interviewer, especially with unstructured interviews- social desirability.
Describe sampling techniques.
Researchers rely on them as the whole target population cannot be tested. A good one will be one that represents the characteristics of the target population so ensure population validity. If the sample is not representative this will result in sampling bias.
Give examples of sampling bias.
2 false and 1 from real life
Pps are gathered from sixth form common room in free periods on Monday= all students do similar a levels.
Researcher recruits PPS from friends and colleagues= all too similar.
Nestle and Coca-Cola have made exaggerated claims about energy drinks supposedly burning calories by speeding up metabolism= claims based on young thin people who consumed 3 cans a day and studied only for 3 days.
Describe a Random sampling method.
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of taking part in research: like names out of a hat. A random sample can be created using computer selection or a lottery method.
Describe strengths of random sampling method.
Most representative
Unbiased
Researcher has no influence
Results can be generalised
Representative of target population
Describe weaknesses of random sampling method
Very hard to do
Consent must be obtained
Some PPS who refuse may end up being unrepresentative
Describe an opportunity sampling method.
Participants selected from whoever is available at the time.
Describe strengths of opportunity sampling method.
Ethical
No pressure to take part
Easy and quick
Large sample
More reliable
Desd robe weaknesses of opportunity sample method.
Not representative
Researcher may consciously or unconsciously show bias
Limits generalisability.
Describe a stratified sampling method.
A proportional representation of a target group- eg sample will have some proportion of males or females.
Describe strengths of stratified sampling bias
Very representative
Describe weaknesses of stratified sampling method.
Time consuming
Difficult to establish correct proportions
If key features not identified then sample not representative
Describe a volunteer sampling method.
Participants select themselves
Describe strengths of volunteer sampling method.
Well motivated
Less likely to drop out
Easier than random sample
Describe weaknesses of volunteer sampling method.
High motivators may behave differently
Not representative
Limits generalisability
Demand characteristics
What does induction mean?
Using known facts to produce general principles; from specific to general.
What does deduction mean?
Using existing knowledge or assumptions to reach conclusions or understand something; from her era to specific (using theories to explain cases)
What is thematic analaysis?
Often begins with a process of developing codes with which to label data- referring to ideas, attitudes and behaviours you want to identify. You may investigate why students prefer one subject to another, or how stereotypes are produced.
How is qualitative data and thematic analysis used together?
Technique used to identify patterns of meanings.
