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Research Methods Flashcards

Paper 2 Section C

1
Q

What’s the difference between an aim and a hypothesis

A

A general statement vs precise
States purpose vs relationship between variables
Does not vs does define variables

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2
Q

When is a directional hypothesis used?

A

When past research suggests that the findings will go in a particular direction

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3
Q

Define operationalisation

A

The process of clearly defining the variables to make them testable and measurable

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4
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small scale trial run of a research study- smaller no. of ppts
Checks that research works as intended to, doesn’t have extraneous variables and is practical

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5
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Anyone who is willing to take part at the time eg approaching people in the street
Quick and convenient
Can be biased and unrepresentative

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6
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Individuals who have put themselves forward
Quick and convenient
Can be biased and unrepresentative

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7
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Selecting every nth member of target population eg 5th name on each school register
Avoids researcher bias
Not guaranteed to be representative

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8
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Everyone in target population has equal chance of being selected eg names assigned number and lottery generated
Avoids researcher bias
Not guaranteed to be representative

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9
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Sample that reflects the proportions of people in different subgroups according to their frequency within the population eg 40% women in each subgroup
Highly representative
Time-consuming and inconvenient

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10
Q

Name and explain the three experimental designs

A

Repeated measures- all ppts take part in all conditions

Independent groups- ppts are placed into separate groups

Matched pairs- diff ppts are used in each condition but matched into pairs based on important characteristics

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11
Q

Evaluate repeated measures design

A

No participant variables- no individual differences
Requires 1/2 no. of ppts

Suffers from order effects eg boredom and practice
High demand characteristics

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12
Q

Evaluate independent groups design

A

No order effects
Low demand characteristics

Low degree of control over ppt variables
Requires twice as many ppts

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13
Q

Evaluate matched pairs design

A

No order effects
Low demand characteristics

Less control over ppt variables than repeated measures
Requires more ppts than repeated measures

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14
Q

What ethical issues does “DIP With Chocolate” stand for?

A

Deception
lack of Informed Consent
lack of Protection from Harm
lack of right to Withdraw
lack of Confidentiality

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15
Q

What is a case study?

A

In-depth, longitudinal investigation of a single individual, group or event
Uses a range of methods/ techniques/ sources

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16
Q

Name the dis/advantages of case studies

A

Provide rich, detailed data- insights into many variables
Allows unethical behaviours to be studied

May lack validity (population or internal)
Ethical issues (informed consent)

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17
Q

What’s the difference between a naturalistic and controlled observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in a natural situation with no influence over ppts vs environment which has been regulated and controlled by researcher

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18
Q

What’s the difference between an overt and covert observation?

A

Overt= ppts are aware they are being watched whereas covert are not aware eg in secret

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19
Q

What’s the difference between a participant and non-participant observation?

A

In participant, observer is part of group being observed whereas non-ppt researcher remains separate from the people they are studying

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20
Q

When an observers expectations influences what the researcher sees or hears, what is this called?

A

Observer bias

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21
Q

Continuously watching a certain behaviour and counting the number of times it occurs, what sampling is this?

A

Event sampling

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22
Q

Watching and recording behaviour at specific time intervals eg every 30 mins, what sampling is this?

A

Time sampling

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23
Q

Define what a questionnaire is

A

A set of written questions on a topic to assess the ppts thoughts, feelings and opinions

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24
Q

What is the difference between open and closed questions?

A

A closed question offers a fixed number of responses whereas an open question means that ppts are free to answer as they wish

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25
Define what an interview is
Involves asking ppts questions face to face on a topic to assess the ppts thoughts, feelings and opinions
26
What are the +ves and -ves of questionnaires?
Low demand characteristics Easier to gather lots of info Low response rate if too long or low variety of questions
27
What are the +ves and -ves of interviews?
Can see body language Investigator effects Ppts may not want to answer if too personal
28
What is the difference between structured and unstructured interviews?
Structured- pre-determined set of questions in a fixed order, whereas unstructured is a free-flowing conversation with no set questions
29
Research which analyses the strength and direction of a relationship between two co-variables, that is this known as?
Correlations
30
What is the difference between correlations and experiments?
Experiments-variables measured and changed to establish cause and effect whereas correlations- no manipulation of variables so no cause and effect
31
A number that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two co-variables, what is this called?
Correlation co-efficient
32
How do we assess validity?
Face- looks like it is measuring what the researcher intended to measure Concurrent- whether current test produces similar results to previous
33
How do we improve validity?
Questions should be removed, revised or rewritten
34
How do we assess reliability?
Test-retest- extent to which same test given to same ppts on diff occasions produces same results Inter-observer- agreement between two or more observers
35
How do we improve reliability?
If low test-retest then questions ambiguous or too broad if inter-observer is low then the behavioural categories were not operationalised clearly enough
36
What is the difference between primary and secondary data?
Primary- og data directly observed/collected specifically for the purposes of investigation whereas secondary- already exists, collected by someone other than researcher
37
Evaluate primary data
Control over variables Time consuming
38
Evaluate secondary data
May not be significant as not your own statistical test Source unknown so not always truth
39
Process of combining results from a number of studies, what is this called?
Meta-analysis
40
Easy to gather results on a large scale May suffer from the file drawer effect (choose to leave out studies that do not support) What is this evaluation for?
Meta-analysis
41
Name the three measures of central tendency
Mean, mode and median
42
Describe the measures of dispersion
Range- large spread= large range Standard deviation- large Sd= large spread of data
43
Which graphs consist of discrete data?
Bar charts- good for presenting difference in mean values
44
Which graphs present continuous data?
Histograms Line graphs Scattergram (depict relationships not differences)
45
Evaluate the use of qualitative data
More valid due to detailed insight More holistic- looks at multiple reasons Open to interpretation so less reliable Difficult to compare
46
What are the key concepts of content analysis?
-People observed indirectly -Focusses on communications people have produced eg interview transcript -Coding system for category data
47
What are the 7 design decisions?
1. Research question 2. Analysis, how to collect and sampling method 3. Common categories 4. Operationalise 5. Tally occurrences 6. Check reliability (0.8) 7. Conclude
48
Placing quantitative and qualitative data into categories, what is this referred to as?
Coding
49
What are +ves and -ves for content analysis?
Easy to replicate due to easy access High ecological validity- real-life communications Observer bias- different interpretations of categories Culturally biased
50
What is thematic analysis?
Analysing qualitative data Identifying recurring themes from data Organising according to themes Summarised to draw conclusions
51
What are the 6 steps to conduct a thematic analysis?
1. Familiarise with data 2. Break data down into phrases etc 3. Assign label/code to unit 4. Combine labels into broader themes 5. Collect new data and apply themes 6. Write a report
52
What is one positive and negative of thematic analysis?
Maintains detail by keeping qualitative form of data Time consuming
53
Briefly explain the sections of a scientific report
Abstract- overview of investigation Intro- review of previous research, aims/hypothesis Method- design, ppts, materials, procedure, ethics Results- descriptive (graphs) and inferential statistics, qualitative research Discussion- interpret results and discuss implications References- giving credit to sources
54
What is the referencing format for a journal article?
Authors name, date, title of article, title of author, volume, page numbers
55
What is the referencing format for a book?
Authors name, date, title of book, place of publication, publisher
56
Explain peer review
-Assessment of work by independent experts to ensure high quality, validity an agreed scientific standard -It is often unpaid and anonymous
57
Why is peer review important?
-Ensures published research can be taken seriously -Validate the quality -Suggest improvements -Allocate funding -Encourage sharing of ideas between experts
58
What is the process of peer review?
1.Several reviewers sent copies by editor 2.Read and assess 3.Send it back with improvements 4. Recommend whether to publish or not 5. Provide a critical expert review
59
What are the problems associated with peer review?
-bias (gender, funding) and lacks objectivity from reviewers -File drawer effect -May prevent new knowledge
60
What is the process of the scientific method?
Make observation Develop theory Test empirically Do findings fit theory?
61
What does THE PROF stand for as features of science?
Theory Hypothesis Empirical Paradigm Replicability Objectivity Falsifiability
62
A set of assumptions, theories, methods and terminology shared by psychologists, what is this known as?
Paradigm
63
Who named the term "paradigm shift"?
Thomas Khun
64
What is a paradigm shift?
Where a paradigm is challenged to the point that a different one takes place
65
The idea that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it is possible to be proven untrue, what is this called?
Falsifiability
66
Who came up with the term "falsifiability"?
Karl Popper
67
What is theory construction?
Theory put together through observations making it possible to predict how people are likely to respond in a certain situation
68
A scientist fails to support a hypothesis, the theory needs modification to be generate testable predictions, what is this called?
Hypothesis testing
69
What makes methods empirical?
provides evidence based on direct experience seeks to report on the world as it really is
70
Why is empiricism an important feature of a science and give one criticism?
Distinguish real truth vs unfound belief However, variables measured in psychology can be more difficult to directly experience than other sciences eg intelligence
71
Removal of any bias and research results are not affected by their own individual views, what is this known as?
Objectivity
72
Why is objectivity an important feature of a science?
Builds confidence that a finding represents a real effect (not representing views of a researcher) Ensures methods used in a study are well-controlled Identifies scientific fraud
73
Why is replicability an important feature of a science?
Check whether results are reliable Build confidence that a finding represents a real effect not just a one-off Well-controlled methods Identify scientific fraud
74
Nominal data as a level of measurement
Discrete data (one item in each category eg vote for fav subject) Frequencies counted in each named category
75
Ordinal data as a level of measurement
Data in some sort of order No fixed intervals between each unit (eg ratings or test scores usually ordinal)
76
Interval data as a level of measurement
Data on scale that has fixed intervals between values eg time in secs, distance in cm Thermometer, ruler
77
What is the generic evaluation for levels of measurement?
Precision and sophisticated vs simplified and basic
78
Which table is best for nominal data?
Bar charts- a discrete scale
79
Which tables are best for ordinal data?
Line graph-continuous scale histograms= continuous scale clearly showing trend
80
When would a scattergram be used to show a level of measurement?
Ordinal data- used for correlations- two scores for each ppt and coefficient established (strength and direction)
81
What is the standard level of significance?
P<_0.05- 95% confident that results represent a real effect
82
An optimistic error- accepting a hypothesis that is false (false positive) Error increased if sig level is too lenient eg 10% Accept the alternate hypothesis if due to chance
Type one
83
A pessimistic error- rejecting a hypothesis that is true (false negative) Error increased if sig level is too stringent eg 1% Accept the null hypothesis
Type two
84
Inferential statistics list
Clever- Chi squared Students- Sign test Can- Chi squared Memorise- Mann Whitney Sentences- Spearman's Rho Using- Unrelated t-test Repeated- Related t-test Practice- Pearsons Difference vs correlation/relationship Related (repeated/matched) vs unrelated (independent) Which level of measurement (nom,ord,int)?
85
How to calculate degrees of freedom in a Chi-Squared or unrelated/related t-test
Chi-squared use contingency tables (2x2, 3x2, 3x3) THE FIRST NUMBER IS ALWAYS NO. OF ROWS (HORIZONTAL) Df= (r-1) x (c-1) eg 2x3 (2-1) x (3-1) = 1x2= 2 df=2
86
What do you need to know to find the appropriate critical value in a given table?
1. one-tailed (directional) or two-tailed? 2. Significance level (usually 0.05) 3. No. of ppts = n 4. Degrees of freedom = df
87
Template for interpreting statistical test results
The result of the statistical test IS/IS NOT significant and therefore the hypothesis should be ACCEPTED/REJECTED and the null hypothesis should be ACCEPTED/REJECTED. This is because the calculated/observed value (?) is GREATER/LESS than the critical value (?) at the p
88
If the result is significant at the 0.05 level, what is the chance of making a type one error?
5% Higher the level of significance, more confident in error
89
Calculating a sign test
Work out if there is an increase in score (+) or decrease (-) add + and - up and select smaller value Calculated value (s)
90
What do you include in a set of standardised instructions?
What they are required to do How long it will take Ethical considerations Check if they understood and have any questions (Briefing= asking for consent, what's required and how long)
91
How do you write a debriefing statement?
Thank for taking part Tell the aim Ethical considerations Check if they have any questions

Psychology (11 decks)

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