Memory Flashcards
(21 cards)
Explain leading questions as misleading information in eyewitness testimony
Infer a particular answer
Adds/changes eyewitness memory- lead to wrongful convictions
Loftus and Palmer-
Aim- if leading questions affect EWT
Participants- 45 uni students
Procedure- lab exp, watch 7 videos of car accidents, given account of event
Asked 10 questions including leading- “How fast were the cars going when they …. Into eachother?”
Smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted
Results- 40.5mph= smashed, 31.8= contacted
Conclusion- leading questions change witnesses memory of events
Evaluate leading questions as misleading information in EWT
Prac apps
Used in real world
Warn jurors of dangers of leading questions
Reduce wrongful convictions
Criticising evidence from real life cases
Leading qs have less impact in real world
Yuille and Custhall- real shooting in Canada asked leading questions had no impact
Limited credibility
Explain post event discussions as misleading information in EWT
Witnesses discuss the crime after event
Leads to memory conformity and adding/changing details
Gabbert’s study
Procedure- 60 uni students, 60 older adults, lab exp, video of mock theft
Control group- tested individually and saw her stealing wallet
Co-witness- pairs, told they watched same video but 1 saw title, 1 saw her stealing
They all see her returning book
Results- 71% give details not seen, 60% say she’s guilty
Conc- leads to memory conformity
Evaluate post event discussion as misleading information in EWT
Strong effects in other research
Bodner
Effects could be reduced if warned pre interview
Supports memory conformity
Mock crimes less valid
Not real life consequences
Less serious
Not accurately representing real life EWT
How does anxiety affect EWT?
Causes feelings of stress and worry
Physical reactions of sweating, shaking, increased heart rate
Weapons cause anxiety due to harm/ it is unusual
Weapon focus effect- focus on central details (weapon) not peripheral (offenders face)
What study supports anxiety in EWT?
Johnson and Scott
Participants sat in a waiting room, hear a convo from room with closed door, see a man come out
Condition 1- grease on hands and pen, 2- blood and knife
Shown photos and have to identify man
Results- grease- 49% accurate, knife- 33%
Conclusion- weapon focus effect occurs and distracts people
Evaluate anxiety in EWT
Johnson and Scott supported Loftus
Attention is diverted to the weapon
Loftus sued eye trackers
Negative effect on EWT as diverts attention
Criticised by real life robberies
Christianson and Hubinette
Affected by weapon more accurate after 15 months than not
Anxiety increases accuracy
Yerkes-Dodson Law
anxiety can improve EWT up to optimal point
too much reduces accuracy
weapon presence in Johnson and Scott (too much anxiety)
Explain the 4 stages in the cognitive interview
Developed to access retrieval routes and reduce effects of schema
Reverse order- recall event backwards which adds detail due to difficulty
Context reinstatement- uses environmental cues to access memories
Report everything- recall all details even if relevant
Changing perspective- imagine you were someone else at the crime scene and recall from different POV
What is the enhanced cognitive interview?
Interview that builds rapport by reducing anxiety and making them feel, at ease, better recall
Describe retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting.
Cues present at learning not present at recall
Context-dependent forgetting- environmental cues, recall more if in same environment learning as recall
State- dependent forgetting- emotional cues, recall if in same emotional or physical state at learning and recall
Evaluate retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting
Godden and Baddeley
Cues needed to prevent forgetting
Scuba divers learned word lists and recalls more in same place
Forgetting due to lack of context cues
State dependent forgetting support
Physical state acts as a cue for recall
Ppts who hid money while on marajuana less able to recall when sober
Forgetting due to lack of state cues
real world apps, used to reduce forgetting , thinking of the room when recalling helps info retrieval
Criticism from meta-analysis, retrieval failure only occurred with word lists, meaningful info retrieved when context eliminated, more research needed
male volunteers learned word lists whilst drunk or sober, forgot most when learning and retrieval state different, applies to intoxication
What are Tulving’s three types of LTM?
Episodic memory- personal experiences from specific point in time, cue dependent and explicit
Semantic- factual knowledge, not cue dependent and explicit
Procedural- skills, actions and how things are done, not cue dependent, implicit, automatic due to practice
Evaluate the types of LTM
Brain damaging evidence
PM was pro cellist
Episodic and semantic affected so couldn’t recall musical facts but could read music
Types must be separated
Case studies are unique
Individuals with brain damage are unique studies
PM and Clive wearing had infections so are different to others
LTM difficult to generalise so low population validity
Clive Wearing, highly talented musician, viral infection caused brain damage, lost episodic (no memory of wedding) but got use of procedural (play piano), diff types
real-life apps, identity types and target, develop techniques to train episodic mems in old ppl
Tucking incomplete, priming is 4th type, implicit memories stored and influence persons response eg yellow-banana, more research needed
Explain interference as an explanation for forgetting.
Where one memory interferes with another as the info is similar
Proactive- old info affects new, new can’t be recalled
Retroactive- new info affects old, old can’t be recalled
Evaluate interference as an explanation for forgetting
Supportive evidence is in lab experiments
High control due to standardised environments
Postman can control factors such as noise that may interfere
High internal validity
Underwoods meta analysis supports
Review of research into interference
Asked ppts to learn word lists they recall earlier info better than later ones
Supports proactive interference
Postman’s lab exp
ppts had to remember word list eg cat-tree, one group also had to learn another, control not given second more accurate
real life interference support, given map of neighbourhood where they went to school, asked to recall places, +ve correlation of how many times moved and forgetting, retroactive support
research uses unrealistic tasks, Postman used word pairs which not meaningful, low ecological validity
Explain the capacity of STM
7+/2 items, displacement
Miller- limited capacity, digit span technique, reading series of digit sets that get longer, immediately repeat, increased digits by chunking
Explain the capacity of LTM
Unlimited, interference, retrieval failure
Anokhin- 1x10.5 million km of zeros (number of possible neuronal connections)
Explain duration in the STM
Peterson and Peterson- 18-30 secs, extended through rehearsal, 24 students to listen to constant trigram, asked to recall random 3 digit number eg EHZ and asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal
Recall after 3,6,9,12,15,18 highest 90% after 3 secs vs 2% after 18 secs
Explain duration in LTM
Unlimited, Bahrick et al, 392 ppts aged 17-74 to name old classmates from high school, recognition after 15 years= 90% accurate to 70% after 48 years but free recall was 60% after 15 years so assistance to be recalled needed but still unlimited
Explain coding in STM and LTM
STM coding is mainly acoustic
Baddeley- presented word lists that were acoustically similar (cat cab can)
Better recall when presented with acoustically different words
LTM coding is mainly semantic
Presented word lists that were semantically similar (great large big)
Recalled 20 mins later recalled better with semantically different words
Evaluate the cognitive interview
meta analysis 53 studies
34% more correct recall than standard
positive on economy
efficiency in legal system
identify criminals sooner (maximise info from witnesses)
reduce waste
ethical issues
mentally relive trauma
murder or sexual assault
time consuming
need key details rather than great details
use RE and CR
