Research Methods Flashcards
What is standard deviation?
A measure of variability of a set of scores around the mean/how varied the data is.
What is independent group design?
Different participants are used for each condition.
What is repeated measures design?
The same people participate in all the conditions of the experiment
What is matched pairs design?
Participants are paired as closely as possible on important or relevant variables and then one from each pair is allocated to each condition
What are 2 strengths of repeated measures?
Participant variables do not confound the results
It is less time consuming to select participants than for an independent group design
What are 2 weaknesses of repeated measures?
Demand characteristics are more likely to affect the results
More time consuming than independent measures to conduct the study
What are 2 strengths of matched pairs?
Participant variables are more likely to affect the results than with an independent groups design
Order effects are avoided
What are 2 weaknesses of matches pairs?
Difficult and time consuming to match participants
It is more time consuming than repeated measures to gather the sample
What are 2 strengths of independent groups?
The same stimulus can be used for all participants
Participants are less likely to be affected by demand characteristics
What are 2 weaknesses of independent groups?
Participants variables might confound the results
It is more time consuming than repeated measures to gather the sample
What is the main aim of correlational analysis?
To discover whether there is an association or relationship between two different variables
These variables are known as co-variables.
What does a positive correlation indicate?
As one variable increases, so does the other
Example: The more hours studied, the higher the grade achieved.
What does a negative correlation indicate?
As one variable increases, the other decreases
Example: The more beers drank, the lower the grade achieved.
What does a zero correlation indicate?
There is no relationship between the two variables
Example: Toe size and scores on a test.
What should be included when describing a scattergram?
- The strength of the correlation (strong/weak)
- The direction of the correlation (positive/negative)
- A description of the pattern of each variable
Example: The longer the treatment, the lower the depression score.
What is a correlation coefficient?
A statistic that reflects the degree to which two sets of scores are related
It indicates the direction and strength of the relationship.
What range do correlation coefficients fall within?
-1 to 1
A coefficient of 0 means no correlation, 1 means perfect positive correlation, and -1 means perfect negative correlation.
What does a correlation coefficient of 0.6 indicate?
A moderate positive correlation
Coefficients close to 1/-1 indicate a strong relationship.
What is indicated by a correlation coefficient of -0.7?
A strong negative correlation
Negative correlations are expressed as negative numbers.
Fill in the blank: A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates _______.
no correlation
What does a correlation coefficient close to 0 indicate?
A weak relationship
For example, a coefficient of 0.3 would indicate a weak positive correlation.
What does a correlation coefficient of -0.8 indicate?
A strong negative correlation
A correlation coefficient close to -1 indicates a strong inverse relationship between two variables.
What is the strength of using correlational analysis in psychology?
Suggests trends, useful when experiments are impossible or unethical, high ecological validity
Correlational analysis can identify potential relationships that warrant further investigation through experimental methods.
Why are correlations useful when experiments would be impossible or unethical?
They provide insight into relationships between naturally occurring variables
An example is studying the impact of hours spent in daycare on aggressiveness.
What is a limitation of correlational analysis?
Correlations do not establish cause and effect
This means that while two variables may be related, one does not necessarily cause the other.
What is the primary difference between experiments and correlations?
Experiments have an IV & DV; correlations have two variables without IV or DV
Experiments aim to establish cause and effect, while correlations measure relationships.
What does high ecological validity in correlational studies imply?
The findings are more applicable to real-world scenarios
This is because correlations often study naturally occurring variables.
Fill in the blank: Correlational analysis can suggest trends that can lead to _______.
[experiments]
What might affect the findings of a correlation?
Other variables or chance relationships
Unlike controlled experiments, correlational studies cannot eliminate the influence of confounding variables.
True or False: A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates a strong positive relationship.
False
A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship between the two variables.
What do correlations measure in relation to two variables?
The degree of interrelationship
This means they assess how closely the two variables move in relation to each other.
What is the purpose of creating behavioral categories in observational design?
To operationalise behaviors for clear identification and measurement
Behavioral categories enable researchers to define observable actions that can be recorded and analyzed.
What is operationalisation in the context of observational design?
Clear identification/definition of observable actions/behaviors
Operationalisation allows behaviors to be measured objectively.
List examples of behavioral categories used in an observation of flirting behavior.
- Looking into each other’s eyes
- Arms touching
- Sitting close together
- Laughing
These categories help in systematically recording observed behaviors.
What is the purpose of conducting a pilot study before the main observation?
To check the suitability of the behavioral categories and the procedure
Pilot studies help refine the observational methods and ensure reliability.
What is inter-rater reliability?
The consistency of observations made by different observers
Using inter-rater reliability enhances the credibility of the observational data.
What are the advantages of using behavioral categories in observational research?
- Enables operationalisation of behavior
- Provides clear focus for the researcher
- Allows for testable hypotheses
- Facilitates objective data recording
- Results in greater reliability (particularly inter-rater)
- Provides quantitative data easy to analyze
These advantages improve the overall quality of observational studies.
What is a major disadvantage of breaking behavior into categories?
It can be arbitrary, leading to missing key behaviors
This may reduce the internal validity of the observational data.
Fill in the blank: Behavioral categories provide ______ data that is easy to analyze.
quantitative
Quantitative data allows for statistical analysis and clearer conclusions.
True or False: Behavioral categories enhance the internal validity of observational data.
False
The arbitrary nature of categories can lead to missing important behaviors, thus reducing internal validity.
What is event sampling?
Observers decide on a specific event relevant to the investigation and record it every time it is observed.
When is event sampling particularly useful?
When the behaviour happens quite infrequently and could be missed if time sampling were used.
Give an example of event sampling.
Counting the number of times players disagree with a referee during a football match.
What is a strength of event sampling?
The observer aims to record all behaviour, making results likely to be valid.
What is a limitation of event sampling?
If too many observations happen at once, it may be difficult for the researcher to record all behaviour.
What is time sampling?
Observing and recording only behaviour that occurs at given points in time, such as every 5 minutes.
Provide an example of time sampling.
A preschool researcher notes the number of aggressive physical interactions within a particular playgroup during 5-minute intervals.
What is a strength of time sampling?
The observer has time to record what they have seen, making results likely to be valid.
What is a limitation of time sampling?
Some behaviours will happen outside of the intervals, so the results may not be representative of participants’ behaviour.
Fill in the blank: Event sampling is useful for behaviours that happen _______.
[infrequently]
True or False: Time sampling can capture all behaviours that occur.
False
What are self-report techniques?
Methods that include questionnaires and interviews
Self-report techniques gather subjective data about participants’ personal experiences.
What do questionnaires typically ask participants to record?
Answers to a pre-set list of questions usually concerning behaviour, opinions, and attitudes
What are closed question questionnaires?
Questionnaires where the researcher determines the range of possible answers in advance
Closed questions tend to generate quantitative (numerical) data.
What is a strength of closed questions?
They produce quantitative data that is easy to quantify and analyze
What is a limitation of closed questions?
The amount of information is very limited because participants can only select from provided answers
What do open question questionnaires require from participants?
A descriptive answer with no restriction on the response given
What type of data do open questions tend to produce?
Qualitative (non-numerical) data
What is a strength of open questions?
They can produce rich, detailed information (qualitative data)
What is a limitation of open questions?
They produce qualitative data that is not easy to quantify and analyze
What should researchers consider when constructing a questionnaire?
Aims, length of questions, speed of response, validity
Fill in the blank: Closed questions tend to generate ______ data.
quantitative
True or False: Open questions are easier to analyze than closed questions.
False
What can open questions allow researchers to pursue?
A line of enquiry that may not have been predicted
What should consent forms include?
A range of both procedural and ethical points
What procedural points should be included in a consent form?
Participants’ expected tasks, understanding check, opportunity for questions
What ethical points must be communicated to participants?
- No pressure to consent
- Ability to withdraw data
- Confidentiality and anonymity
- Full debrief at the end
- Space for consent signature
True or False: Participants can withdraw their data from the study.
True
What is the primary aim of the study mentioned?
To test the psychological consequences of medical conditions and interventions
What type of participants are needed for the study?
Healthy participants
What tests will participants complete in the study?
- Three tests of attention
- Memory and concentration tests
- Two questionnaires assessing emotional state
- Brief driving simulation test
How long will the entire procedure last?
Approximately one hour
What must be done with participants’ results regarding confidentiality?
Results will be kept confidential and names will not be used
Fill in the blank: Participants have the right to _______ from the study at any point.
withdraw
What should the tone of consent forms be?
Suitably formal and verbatim
What is included in the debrief provided to participants?
Full debrief at the end of the study
What must participants acknowledge in the consent form?
- Participation is voluntary
- Right to withdraw
- Understanding of participation details
- Questions answered satisfactorily
What is the aim of the study discussed in the debrief?
To assess the effect that music has on psychological stress
This study involves evaluating how different types of music can influence stress levels.
What task was designed to induce stress in participants?
The tower building task
This task is used to create a controlled environment for measuring stress.
How was the amount of stress caused assessed?
By the first questionnaire completed by participants
This questionnaire measures participants’ stress levels before and after the task.
What were the two types of music used in the study?
One stress-inducing music and one stress-relieving music
The study contrasts music that may heighten stress against music that could alleviate it.
What was the purpose of the second questionnaire?
To assess if there was a difference between stress levels before and after listening to the music
This helps in evaluating the impact of music on stress.
What right do participants have after the study?
The right to withdraw themselves and their results from the investigation
Participants can choose to have their data removed even after the study is completed.
What should participants do if they feel they have suffered psychological harm?
Contact the researcher for support
The researcher is responsible for providing further help to affected participants.
What information should be provided during the debrief?
Full aim of the study, expected actions, confidentiality, results, opportunity for questions, and consent for using results
This ensures transparency and participant understanding.
True or False: Participants are informed they can ask questions during the debrief.
True
Participants are encouraged to engage and clarify any doubts.
Fill in the blank: The debrief reminds participants that their information remains _______.
confidential
Confidentiality is crucial in research ethics.
What is a psychological journal?
A collection of recent psychological studies aimed at advancing and disseminating psychological knowledge.
How often are psychological journals typically published?
Quarterly (4 times a year).
Name three examples of psychological journals in Britain.
- British Journal of Psychology
- British Journal of Clinical Psychology
- British Journal of Developmental Psychology
What is the purpose of peer review?
To subject psychological research papers to independent scrutiny for validity, significance, and originality before publication.
True or False: Peer review ensures only significant results are published.
False.
What role does peer review play in the scientific process?
Acts as a ‘gatekeeper’ to reduce the chances of flawed or unscientific research being accepted as fact.
What are the four options reviewers can recommend during the peer review process?
- Accept the work unconditionally
- Accept it with improvements
- Reject it but suggest revisions and resubmission
- Reject it outright
What are some aspects that peer review evaluates?
- Accuracy of findings
- Quality and relevance of research
- Methodology
- Data analysis
What is the verification process in peer review?
Experts scrutinize research to determine its scientific validity.
Fill in the blank: Psychological journals aim to _______ and disseminate psychological knowledge.
[advance]
What is the consequence of flawed research being accepted as true?
Many other researchers’ subsequent research may be built upon the published research.
What is the typical process for a researcher’s work during peer review?
Several expert reviewers receive copies and report back to the editor on weaknesses and suggestions for improvement.
Name two types of psychology journals besides national ones.
- International psychology journals
- Regional psychology journals
What is NOT the role of peer review?
To ensure only significant results are published.
What is the role of peer reviewers in the publication process?
Peer reviewers assess the manuscript and provide feedback to the editor regarding its suitability for publication
They are experts in the relevant field who ensure the quality and validity of the research.
What are the three possible outcomes for a manuscript after peer review?
- Accepted for publication
- Accepted with revisions
- Rejected
Revisions may require the author to make changes and resubmit.
What aspects do peer reviewers evaluate during the review process?
They evaluate:
* Validity
* Significance
* Originality
* Appropriateness of methods and designs used
This ensures that the research meets the necessary academic standards.
True or False: The final decision on publication is made solely by the peer reviewers.
False
The editor makes the final decision based on the reviewers’ comments and recommendations.
Fill in the blank: The editor examines the topic of the manuscript and sends copies to other psychologists who are experts in that topic for _______.
[peer review]
This process helps validate the research before publication.
What is the main purpose of peer review in the context of new knowledge validation?
To provide independent scrutiny of the research by experts in the field
This helps ensure the integrity and quality of published research.
What does the peer review process assess concerning the research methods?
The appropriateness of the methods and designs used
This is crucial for determining the reliability of the research findings.
What happens if a manuscript is rejected during the peer review process?
It cannot be resubmitted for publication
This emphasizes the importance of meeting the standards required for publication.
Who ultimately decides whether a research report is accepted or rejected?
The editor
The editor uses the feedback from peer reviewers to make this decision.
Why is peer review important in psychological research?
It provides a way of validating the research and assessing its quality and appropriateness
Peer review helps ensure that research is rigorously evaluated before publication.
What does peer review help prevent in psychological research?
It helps prevent the dissemination of irrelevant findings, unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations, personal views, and deliberate fraud
These issues can significantly undermine the integrity of scientific research.
What is one key benefit of peer review regarding the quality of research?
It increases the probability of weaknesses and errors being identified
Authors and researchers may be less objective about their own work.
How does peer review ensure published research is taken seriously?
Because it has been independently scrutinized
This independent assessment adds credibility to the research findings.
What is the single-blind review method?
The names of reviewers are not revealed to the researcher
This method aims to allow for an unbiased review.
What is a potential drawback of single-blind reviews?
Anonymous reviewers may delay the review process or be undeservedly harsh
This can affect the fairness and efficiency of the review.
What is the double-blind review method?
Both reviewers and the researcher remain anonymous
This aims to eliminate bias based on the researcher’s identity.
What is a possible limitation of double-blind reviews?
The researcher may still be identifiable through their writing style
This could introduce bias despite the anonymity.
What is the open review method?
Reviewers and the researcher are known to each other
This method encourages open and honest feedback.
What is a potential downside of open reviews?
Deserved criticism may be watered down due to politeness or fear of retribution
This can compromise the effectiveness of the review process.
Fill in the blank: Peer review helps to improve the quality of research by ensuring it is _______.
[independently scrutinized]
True or False: Peer review guarantees that all mistakes will be caught.
False
It increases the likelihood of identifying mistakes but does not guarantee it.
What is a limitation of peer review regarding fraudulent research?
Peer review has occasionally failed to detect fraudulent research, including fabrication and falsification of data.
Proven cases of fraudulent research are very rare.
How does peer review treat findings that do not align with previous knowledge?
Research that does not fit with previous work is often seen as suspect and can be rejected.
New findings against existing theories might not be published.
What type of research does peer review tend to favor?
Peer review tends to favor positive results, i.e., results that support the hypothesis.
Negative findings are often not published or ignored.
What is the potential impact of overlooking negative findings in research?
Overlooking negative findings can lead to a distorted understanding of a topic.
If ten negative findings are overlooked while one positive finding is published, the overall understanding may be skewed.
What types of bias can be present in peer review?
Peer review can be subject to:
* Theoretical bias
* Institutional bias
* Gender bias
These biases can affect the objectivity of the review process.
How can an author’s and reviewer’s shared values affect research publication?
If the author and reviewer share values, the research may be published as objective science, despite potential biases.
For example, Bowlby’s work on maternal deprivation reflected cultural values of the time.
What effect do social relationships within the research community have on objectivity?
Social relationships can compromise objectivity and impartiality in research.
Researchers funded by organizations may have biases affecting their evaluation of research.
True or False: All negative findings are published in peer-reviewed journals.
False. Many negative findings are either not published or ignored.
Fill in the blank: Peer review is subject to _______.
bias
What is a consequence of peer review favoring positive results?
It may lead to a lack of publication for negative findings, skewing the understanding of research topics.
What is meant by ‘institutional bias’ in peer review?
Institutional bias refers to the tendency to favor research from prestigious institutions.
What can be a consequence of resistance to revolutionary ideas in research?
There may be a lack of acceptance for findings that go against elite or prevailing views.
