Research Methods Flashcards
What’s an independent variable?
A variable a researcher measures.
What’s a dependent variable?
A variable a researcher measures.
What’s operationalisation?
Operationalisation refers to when variables/behaviours are clearly specified to make them precise.
What’s objectivity?
By operationalising the variables there should be no subjective interpretation regarding how to manipulate/measure them.
What’s replicability?
By operationalising the variables it would make it easy to replicate the research.
What’s an extraneous variable?
Any variable other than the IV that could affect the dependent variable/results.
What’s a confounding variable?
A variable that varies with the IV and affects the dependent variable/results.
What are order effects?
When participants complete multiple conditions and so their performance could be affected by them having the chance to practice or become bored or fatigued.
What are participant variables?
When participants’ performances could be affected by their individual differences such as their age, gender, IQ etc.
What are investigator effects?
When participants’ performances could be affected by the characteristics and/or behaviours of the investigators e.g. their gender, age, the quality of the instructions they provide etc.
What are situational variables?
When participants’ performances could be affected by differences in the situation e.g. noise, lighting, temperature etc.
What are task variables?
When participants’ performances could be affected by differences in the nature/difficulty of the tasks they are completing.
What does counterbalancing do?
It equally distributes order effects across conditions.
When is counterbalancing used?
When participants have to complete all conditions.
Why is counterbalancing used?
To control order effects affecting results.
When is random allocation used?
When assigning participants to conditions/groups.
Why is random allocation used?
It removes researcher bias in an attempt to control participant variables.
Why is random allocation used?
To ensure participants have an equal chance of being placed into each condition.
How is randomisation used?
It’s used when ordering the presentation of stimuli.
When is randomisation used?
It helps to remove the risk of predictability.
Why is randomisation used?
By ensuring the order of stimuli is random.
Explain the process of randomisation.
- Print stimuli (shapes)
- Place in a hat and shuffle
- 1st stimuli = 1st to be presented
- 2nd stimuli = 2nd to be presented.
Why is standardisation used?
It’s used when trying to ensure all participants have the same experience.
What does standardisation help to do?
It helps to control situational and task variables as well as investigator effects.
Why is standardisation used?
It keeps everything the same (apart from the IV).
What are the experimental designs?
Independent Groups, Repeated Measures, Matched Pairs.
Independent Groups?
Different participants in each condition.
What variables affect Independent Groups?
❌ participant variables
✅ no order effects.
Repeated measures?
Same participants in each condition.
What variables affect repeated measures?
❌ Order effects
✅ Participant variables.
Matched pairs?
Different participants in each condition but are matched on key variables that could affect the DV.
What variables affect matched pairs?
✅ no order effects
✅ reduces participant variables.
How do you carry out a matched pairs design?
- Give all participants a questionnaire
- Pair those with similar scores
- Place the names of one pair into a hat
- 1st name pulled > Condition A
2nd name pulled > Condition B.
Evaluate a correlations method.
- Allows for research when it would be impractical or unethical to carry out.
- Cannot establish cause and effect.
For correlations, where is data presented?
On a scattergram.
For experiments, where is data presented?
On a bar chart.
What is a directional hypothesis?
Predicts there will be a difference.
What does a non-directional hypothesis predict?
There will be a difference but does not state the direction.
Compare correlations to experiments (correlations first).
Correlations:
- Measures whether there is a relationship
- Does not involve the manipulation of a variable
- Cannot establish cause and effect
- Assesses continuous data
- Data is presented on a scattergram.
Compare correlations to experiments (experiments first).
- Measures whether there is a difference
- Involves manipulating an independent variable
- Can establish cause and effect
- Assesses categorical data
- Data is presented on a bar chart.
Distinguish between an aim and a hypothesis.
An aim is a statement about the purpose of the study and the hypothesis is a precise prediction about the expected outcome of a study.
Explain the difference between directional and non-directional hypotheses.
A Directional hypothesis predicts there will be a difference (for an experiment) or relationship (for a correlation) and states the direction. A Non-directional hypothesis predicts there will be a difference (for an experiment) or relationship (for a correlation) but does not state the direction.
Outline the observational method.
An observation involves a researcher watching and recording the behaviour of participants.
Define behavioural categories.
Behavioural categories refer to the operationalised/specific behaviours (e.g. punching, kicking) that represent the general behaviour being observed (e.g. aggression).
Explain why behavioural categories improve observational research.
- It ensures observers are collecting the relevant data.
- It allows for more objective data recording.
- To increase inter-observer reliability.
- It allows observers to quickly tally observations into pre-arranged groupings.
What are the two sampling techniques?
Event sampling and Time Sampling.
Explain the procedure of a sampling technique.
Observers decide on behavioural categories. These are recorded every time they happen throughout the entire observational period.
Explain the procedure of a Time Sampling technique.
Observers decide on behavioural categories. Recordings of these behavioural categories take place at specific time intervals e.g. every 5 minutes.
How do you work out the procedures for time sampling?
Total observation time (in minutes) / Number of observations made.
What is a strength of event sampling?
A strength of event sampling is that it is likely to result in more data.
What is a strength of time sampling?
A strength of time sampling is that it is more appropriate in busy observations.
What is a limitation of event sampling?
A limitation of event sampling is that it is less appropriate in busy observations.
What is a limitation of time sampling?
A limitation of time sampling is that it is likely to result in less data.
Outline the types of observations.
Naturalistic observation, Controlled observation, Overt observation, Covert observation, Participant observation, Non-participant observation.
Which observations will be conducted in a natural and controlled environment?
Naturalistic and Controlled.
In which observations is the observer clearly visible or not?
Overt and Covert.
In which observations will the observer join the group whilst observing or observe from a distance?
Participant and Non-participant.
What is a naturalistic observation?
Where the observer watches and records the behaviour of participants in a natural environment where it would usually occur.
What is one strength of naturalistic observations?
Participants are more likely to behave naturally.
What is a limitation of naturalistic observations?
There is a lack of control over the environment.
What is a controlled observation?
Where the observer watches and records the behaviour of participants in a highly controlled environment e.g. in an observation room.
What is a limitation of controlled observations?
Participants are less likely to behave naturally.
What is a strength of controlled observations?
There is a high level of control over the environment.
What is an Overt observation?
The observer is clearly visible.
What is a limitation to an Overt observation?
Participants’ behaviour is less likely to be natural.
What is a strength of Overt observations?
They are typically more ethical.
What is a Covert observation?
The observer is not clearly visible.
What is a strength of Covert observations?
Participants’ behaviour is more likely to be natural.
What is a limitation of Covert observations?
They may be considered unethical.
What is a Participant observation?
The observer becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.
What is a strength of participant observations?
They allow greater insight into the observed behaviours.
What is a limitation of participant observations?
The researcher may become overly involved with the group they are observing.
What is a Non-Participant observation?
The observer watches and records the behaviour from a distance and therefore does not interact with the participants.
What is a limitation of Non-Participant observation?
The observer may lose valuable insight and understanding of the behaviour they are observing.
What is a strength of a Non-Participant observation?
A strength of non-participant observations is that the researcher does not become overly involved with the group they are observing.
Outline the self-report method.
Self-report techniques involve participants responding to a series of questions.
What do Self report techniques provide to the researcher?
Details regarding their feelings, thoughts and/or behaviour.
What are two types of self report techniques?
Interviews and questionnaires.
What do interviews involve?
A series of questions and answers.
What are interviews typically?
Face to Face and participants respond verbally.
What are two types of interviews?
Structured interview and Unstructured interview.
What do structured interviews refer to?
To when the questions asked by the interviewer are pre-determined and in a set order.
What do unstructured interviews refer to?
To when the interviewer sets the topic but the interview is largely dictated by participants’ responses.
What are two strengths of structured interviews?
- They are highly focused on the researchers aims.
- They are easy to analyse.
What are two limitations of structured interviews?
- They don’t allow the interviewer to pursue unexpected responses for more detail.
- They may make participants feel uncomfortable.
What do Closed questions refer to?
Questions where participants are limited to choose from options provided by the researcher.
What are some options provided in closed questions?
Yes/No, Likert scales, Rating scales.
What is a strength of closed questions?
They make it easy to collate, analyse and compare responses.
What is another strength of closed questions?
They ensure the researcher gains the information they require.
What is a limitation of closed questions?
They do not enable researchers to identify trends in answers that they may not have predicted.
What is another limitation of closed questions?
They can lead to participant frustration.
What do open questions refer to?
They refer to questions where participants are provided with the opportunity to respond freely.
What is a limitation of open questions?
They make difficult to collate, analyse and compare responses.
What are participants restricted to in questionnaires?
Participants are restricted to choose from pre-determined options that they may not feel are suitable.
What is a consequence of participants not completing the questionnaire?
It could lead to small sample sizes that would question the generalisability of the findings.
What is a limitation of open questions?
They make it difficult to collate, analyse and compare responses.
What is another limitation of open questions?
They may result in the researcher not gaining the information they require.
What is a strength of open questions?
They enable researchers to identify trends in answers that they may not have predicted.
What is another strength of open questions?
They avoid participant frustration.
Compare questionnaires and interviews.
- Clarity of questions
- Disclosure of personal information
- Ease of analysis
- Time to administer
- The impact of investigation effects
- Depth of data
What is a case study?
An in-depth study of one person/small group of people.
Where is a case study carried out?
In the real world.
What are case studies typically?
Longitudinal and carried out over a period of time.
Who is a case study typically conducted by?
A single researcher.
What are examples of methods that researchers use to collect data?
Observations, interviews and psychological tests such as IQ testing.
What are two limitations of case studies?
- They typically comprise of small samples, investigate unique situations, and are difficult to generalise.
- They can be difficult to replicate, typically longitudinal, and can’t check reliability, questioning credibility.
What is another limitation of case studies?
Researcher bias due to being conducted by a single researcher, leading to subjective interpretation.
What are two strengths of case studies?
- Conducted in the real world, increasing credibility.
- Data obtained can be cross-checked, adding to credibility.
Define reliability.
Reliability refers to the extent to which results are consistent.
What is inter-observer reliability?
The extent to which multiple observers agree in their tallied recordings.
What’s a strength of high inter-observer reliability?
It means that the observers recorded the same behaviours, resulting in consistent findings.
Why is it important to assess inter-observer reliability?
Using only one observer could result in subjectivity, leading to different results.
What happens as a result of using only one observer?
It may lead to different and unreliable results.
How can researchers ensure the results are reliable?
By using multiple observers and assessing the consistency of their data.
How do researchers assess inter-observer reliability?
- Two observers watch the same people at the same time and tally independently.
- Recordings are correlated on a scattergram.
- Strength of correlation is assessed by calculating a correlation coefficient.
- A statistical test is used to assess significance.
How can researchers improve inter-observer reliability?
- Establish clear behavioural categories.
- Train observers with examples.
- Film participants for review.
What is test-retest reliability?
The extent to which the results of a study are consistent when replicated.
Why is it important to assess test-retest reliability?
The results may be affected by an extraneous variable.
What would happen if the study was conducted again?
The researcher may gather unreliable findings.
What can the researcher assess by conducting the study again?
Whether their results were affected by an extraneous variable.
How do researchers assess test-retest reliability?
- Participants complete the study on more than one occasion.
- Scores are correlated on a scattergram.
- Strength of correlation is assessed by calculating a correlation coefficient.
- A statistical test is used to assess significance.
How can researchers improve test-retest reliability?
By using experiments, observations, questionnaires, and interviews.
How can researchers improve test-retest reliability using experiments?
Use lab experiments and standardisation.
How can researchers improve test-retest reliability using observations?
Use controlled observations and clear behavioural categories.
How can researchers improve test-retest reliability using questionnaires?
Use closed questions and ensure anonymity.
How can researchers improve test-retest reliability using interviews?
Use structured interviews and train all interviewers.
Define validity.
Validity refers to how well a piece of research measures what it says it measures.
What are the two different types of validity?
Ecological validity and Temporal validity.
What is ecological validity?
Whether the setting of the research is natural and likely to result in natural behaviour.
What are laboratory studies likely to result in?
Unnatural behaviour, leading to a lack of ecological validity.
What is temporal validity?
Whether the findings of previous research accurately reflect current society.
What would happen if the findings are found to no longer apply today?
They would be criticised for lacking temporal validity.
What is face validity?
Whether the behaviour being investigated appears valid at first sight.
What is concurrent validity?
A way of assessing the validity of a new test.
How would you check if something has concurrent validity?
By comparing participants’ results on a new test with results on a pre-existing valid test.
What are the 5 sampling techniques?
Stratified, Systematic, Random, Opportunity, and Volunteer.
What does stratified sampling refer to?
A sampling technique that ensures participants in the sample are equal to their representation in the population.
What does systematic sampling refer to?
A sampling technique that uses an objective number system to select participants.
What does random sampling refer to?
A sampling technique whereby everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
What does opportunity sampling refer to?
A sampling technique whereby participants who are readily available to the researcher are used.
What does volunteer sampling refer to?
A sampling technique whereby participants self-select themselves to take part.
How is stratified sampling carried out?
- Identify important sub-groups.
- Calculate the proportion of the strata in the population.
- Calculate how many people are needed from each strata.
- Randomly select the number of people needed from each strata.
How do you carry out systematic sampling?
- Acquire every participant’s name in the population.
- Form the names into a randomly ordered list.
- Calculate the nth term.
- Select every nth term.
How do you carry out random sampling?
- Write names on separate pieces of paper and place them into a hat.
- Pull out the required number of participants.
How do you carry out opportunity sampling?
- Go to a place where the population is likely to be found.
- Approach nearby people and ask them to participate.
How do you carry out volunteer sampling?
- Advertise the study where the population is likely to see it.
- Participants respond to the advertisement.
What is the role of the British Psychological Society code of ethics?
Outlines ethical guidelines that researchers must follow.
What should consent forms include?
- ‘This study aims to investigate…’
- ‘You will be required to…’
- Reference to ethical guidelines.
- An opportunity for the participant to agree.
What should debrief forms include?
- An explanation of the purpose of the study.
- Info about other conditions.
- Reference to ethical guidelines.
- Offer psychological support.
What are the ethical guidelines?
Consent, Deception, Confidentiality, Debrief, Right to withdraw, Protection from harm.
What is meant by a pilot study?
A small scale investigation with a few participants before full-scale research.
Explain the purpose of conducting a pilot study.
To check the procedures of the investigation and gather participant feedback.
What’s quantitative data?
Numerical data.
What is qualitative data?
Non-numerical, descriptive data.
What’s a limitation of quantitative data?
Lacks detail and cannot be elaborated.
What are two strengths of quantitative data?
- Analysis is objective and non-biased.
- Easy to analyse and compare.
What is a strength of qualitative data?
In-depth responses allow for more meaningful conclusions.
What are two limitations of qualitative data?
- Subjective interpretation can lead to bias.
- Difficult to analyse and compare.
