Research methods- Flashcards
What is meant by aim
what the researcher is trying to achieve/ purpose of the study
What is the aim linked to?
a real- world purpose; a reason why it is important to find something out
What is meant by directional hypothesis?
predicts the direction in which change is expected to occur.
used when previous research has suggested the direction of change.
Uses words like faster/slower, bigger/smaller, more/less
What is meant by non-directional hypothesis?
Predicts change but does not specify which direction it will go in.
No previous research.
Uses words like effect, change, difference
What is meant by hypotheses?
involves making a specific prediction of what will be found, expressed in terms of a change in variables.
Based on theories and past research findings
Null hypothesis
statement of what will be found if the experimental/alternative hypothesis is not supported by the results
Experimental VS Alternative
researcher’s main hypothesis is known as an experimental hypothesis (H1).
Non-experimental study- called an alternative hypothesis
What is a key aspect of sampling?
Sample should be representative of the target population
-should have similar characteristics
-allows researcher to generalise the findings to target pop( key aim of research)
Define target population
the group of people the psychologists want to be able to generalise their results to
What is opportunity sampling?
involves accessing ppts on the basis of their convenient availability to the researcher
-can be biased: easily available ppts may not be representative of the target pop
What is systematic sampling?
involves applying a regular system or rule when selecting ppts
-eg picking every 4th person
-reduces researcher bias
-some potential ppts may be excluded=bias
Volunteer sampling
allows ppts to select themselves eg by responding to an ad or email
-source of bias= certain personalities are more likely to come forwards than others
-mayve affected classic research studies like MILGRAM’s
Stratified sampling
when the population is divided into important groups
-eg.selecting people from diff ethnic groups to create a sample with the same proportions as exist in target pop
Random sampling
obtaining a sample taken from a population where everyone must stand an equal chance of being selected
-doesnt guarantee a representative sample
-selecting a biased sample are minimal
Strengths of random sampling
-if sample is large enough, the rules of probability suggest that it should be representative
Limitations of random sampling
-ppts may not be willing/able to take part
-sample could be biased in terms of variables eg gender, age, ethnicity etc.
What is considered ‘good research’
ethical in nature and is guided by a basic respect for human dignity and safety
ETHICS- consent
-ppts must sign an informed consent BEFORE experiment
-informed consent provides: written description of exp- potential risks and implications of research
-lets them know their involvement is voluntary, can leave without penalty
-data collected will remain confidential
-under 18 ppt: parents gotta sign form
Deception
Purposely misleading ppts to maintain integrity of experiment
-sometimes necessary to prevent ppt’s knowledge of the exact research
-where deception is involved, ppts MUST receive a full debriefing after study
Describe code of ethics
researchers must follow
-makes sure ppts are treated with respect and not harmed
-research should not put ppts under unreasonable stress/traumatise them
Limitation of informed consent
-researcher may give away the purpose of study- effects ppt’s behaviour
what is ethical design
studies must be designed in a way that they will not risk physical/psychological harm to ppts beyond the risks people experience in everyday life
-researchers ask for permission to run study by proposing it to ethics board
What happens in a debriefing
-happens at the END of the study
-may be given more info about study including hypothesis
Limitation of ethical guidelines
COMPLEXITY OF ETHICAL JUDGEMENTS
-researchers must carefully consider whether the ends justifies the means
-if there is a conflict of interest between scientific progress and rights, ppts’ rights must always come first
Menges (1973) research
-titles ‘openness and honesty vs coercion and deception in psychological research’
Explain the conclusion for Menges Research
argued that his research showed necessity for new ethical guidelines
-current research didn’t reflect the aims of openness and honesty in psychology
what were the results in the Menges research
20% of the studies involved giving false info= hadn’t given informed consent
Less than 50% were debriefed-minority were volunteers, 40% were students,
MENGES estimated that only 3% of studies involved no deception
Explain the evaluation of Menges research
-led to increased awareness of ethics in psychology
-development of new ethical guidelines
-has temporal validity- was carried out in 1973 so things mayve changed for better
Glass &Singer(1972) Behavioural Aftereffects
-researchers exposed ppts to noise to make them stressed
-subjects were able to adapt to loud noise but demonstrated adverse aftereffects= adaptation to noise has long term costs
Glass &Singer(1972) describe method
-LAB EXP.
-5 conditions: predictable loud or soft noise, unpredictable loud or soft noise, a control with no noise
-ppts asked to complete simple task and thena follow-up proof reading task - the number of errors made were recorded
Glass and singer results
-ppts were able to perform at same lvl as the control after 4 mins
-galvanic skin responses returned to control levels
-limits to adaptation
-ppts in loud noise struggled more with complex tasks- reading 3 dials at same time
Glass & Singer (1972) conclusion
-noise can affect stress lvls and cognitive performance, esp on complex tasks
-do adapt to noise lvls but may have long term costs
-predictable noise has less effect than unpredictable
Strengths of Glass & Singer (1972) research
lab experiment= controlled and reliable
Limitations of Glass & Singer (1972) research
-lacks ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- individuals react diff in a lab to real life sitch
-Ethics- ppts protected from harm?? mild stress was induced?
-individual diffs- some ppls seem less affected bu noise
Define case study
an in depth study using a range of methods on one person or a small group
Strength of case studies
Detailed and in-depth
Uses a range of research methods= reliable
- double checks results
-eg. FREUD’S (1909) Little hans and KF and HM examples of brain damaged patients in memory
Limitations of case studies
-lack external reliability- can’t generalise
-time consuming
-can be unethical
