Research Methods Flashcards

Question

What are the advantages of lab experiments?

Answer 1

- High degree of control: experiments control all the variables and the IV and DV are precisely operationalised and measured, this leads to greater accuracy and objectivity. - Replication: other researchers can repeat the experiment to check results. - Cause and effect: as all other variable are controlled, the effect (change in the DV) must be solely caused by the manipulation of the IV. - Isolation of variables: in the lab, individual pieces of behaviour can be isolated and rigorously tested.

Answer 2

- Experimenter bias: experimenters' expectations can affect results and participants may be influenced by these expectations. - Problems operationalising the IV and DV: to gain precision measurements it can become too specific and not relate to wider behaviour. - Low external (ecological) validity: high degrees of control make the experimental situation artificial and unlike real life, means it can be difficult to generalise to other settings. - Demand characteristics participants are aware they are being tested and so may unconsciously alter their behaviour. - Low mundane realism: the task of the participants have to carry out may represent real life experience.

Answer 3

In natural setting, researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV.

Answer 4

No level of control.

Answer 5

- Higher mundane realism: environment is more natural so involves more everyday behaviours. - High external validity: real life environment. - No demand characteristics: often participants are unaware of the experiment, so there are no demand characteristics.

Answer 6

- Less control: it is more difficult to control extraneous, so causality is harder to established. - Replication: difficult to exactly repeat as the conditions may never be precisely the same again. - Ethics: lack of informed consent, potential privacy issues. - Sample bias: participants are not randomly allocated to groups so samples may not be comparable to each other.

Answer 7

An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there, the researcher records the effect on the DV.

Answer 8

No level of control.

Answer 9

- Research opportunities: provides opportunities for research where otherwise it would not have been practical or ethical to do so, such as Romanian orphan study. - High external validity: involve study of real-life issues and problems as they happen e.g. effects of natural disaster on stress levels. - No demand characteristics.

Answer 10

- Limited generalisation: naturally occurring event may happen rarely so may limit scope for generalising. - Sample bias: participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions (only applies when IGD), cannot be sure if IV affected DV, e.g. orphan study the IV was adoption age, this may have been reasons for age of adoption. - Less control - Limited replication - Ethics

Answer 11

A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients, the IV has not been determined by anyone, the 'variables' simply exist, such as being young or old (strictly speaking this is not an experiment).

Answer 12

High level of control.

Answer 13

Often carried out under controlled conditions so share the strengths of a lab experiment.

Answer 14

May be confounding variables - like natural experiments participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions.

Answer 15

The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality. - Scrutinised by two or more expert in the particular field.

Answer 16

1) To allocate research funding: independent peer evaluation also takes place to decide whether or not to award funding for a proposed research project, may be coordinated with government run funding organisations. 2) To validate the quality and relevance of research: all elements of research are assessed fro quality and accuracy. 3) To suggest amendments or improvements: reviewers may suggest minor revisions of the work and improve the report or in extreme circumstances may conclude that the work is inappropriate for publication and should be withdrawn.

Answer 17

1) Accept work unconditionally. 2) Accept it so long as the researcher improves it in certain ways. 3) Reject it but suggest revisions and resubmission. 4) Reject it outright.

Answer 18

Usual form of peer review, names of reviewers are not revealed to researchers, reviewer anonymity should lead to an unbiased review free from interference by the researcher.

Answer 19

- Danger anonymous reviewers may delay the process allowing them to publish similar research first. - May hide behind anonymity to be undeservedly harsh.

Answer 20

Both the reviewers and researcher are anonymous, prevent bias, not be based on a researcher’s reputation.

Answer 21

Researcher may be identified from their writing/research style.

Answer 22

Reviewers and researcher are know to each other, reducing risk of personal comments and plagiarism and encourages open, honest peer reviewing.

Answer 23

Criticism may be watered down due to politeness or fear or retribution from famous or powerful researchers.

Answer 24

- Vital in establishing the validity and accuracy of research. - Anonymous reviewers may lead to harsh critiques as there is competition between researchers (open review prevents this). - Publication bias: tendency for editors of journals to want to publish ‘headline grabbing’ findings to increase the credibility and circulation of their publication, also prefer to publish positive results - creates a false impression of psychology.

Answer 25

- Slow process which may take months or years to complete. - Consequences of false research being accepted as true can be problematic as other may build upon the work. - Peer review may suppress opposition to mainstream theories, reviewers tend to be critical of work that contradicts their own view and see those that match more favourably - established researchers are more likely to be reviewers so the process may slow down the rate of change.

Answer 26

- Creation of effective therapies for mental disorders - allow people to return to work. - Reduces costs to healthcare and criminal justice systems as psychologically healthy people are less likely to need them. - Attachment research and childcare.

Answer 27

- Ethics must come before profits. - Psychology must not be used to exploit people. - Psychologists must take responsibility for the implications of their actions.

Answer 28

A large group of people who are the focus of the researcher's interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.

Answer 29

Subset of the population from which a sample may be drawn.

Answer 30

A group of people who take part in a research investigation, the sample is drawn from the (target) population and is presumed to be representative of that population.

Answer 31

The extent to which finding's and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population.

Answer 32

In the context of sampling, when certain groups may be over or under represented within the sample selected, limits the generalisations that can be made.

Answer 33

Method used to select people from the population.

Answer 34

All members of the target population have an equal chance of selection.

Answer 35

1) Obtain a list of all members of the target population. 2) All the names on the list are assigned a number. 3) Sample generated through a lottery method (computer based randomiser or numbers from a hat).

Answer 36

- Unbiased selection: no bias in selection, increasing chances of getting an unbiased and representative sample, no researcher bias. - Generalisation: sample should be representative, results can then be generalisable to the target population.

Answer 37

- Not representative: unbiased selection does not guarantee an unbiased sample, chance means all one gender could be randomly selected, also participants may refuse to take part. - Impractical: random sampling is difficult to achieve as it is sometimes difficult to get full details of a target population, time consuming.

Answer 38

Where every nth member of thee target population is selected.

Answer 39

1) Sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in the target population organised into alphabetical order. 2) A sampling system is nominated (nth) or the interval may be determined randomly to reduce bias. 3) Researcher then works through the sampling frame until the sample is complete.

Answer 40

- Unbiased selection: no bias in selection, representative sample chance increased, avoids researcher bias (no influence over who is chosen). - Generalisation: usually representative.

Answer 41

- Not representative: unbiased selection does not guarantee an unbiased sample. - Periodic traits: sampling technique may coincide with the frequency of the trait.

Answer 42

Composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (strata) within the target population or wider population.

Answer 43

1) Researcher identifies the different strata that make up the population. 2) The proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out. 3) Participants that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling.

Answer 44

- Representative: as selection occurs from representative sub groups within the population, the sample itself should be representative, avoids researcher bias. - Unbiased: as random sampling is performed upon the subgroups.

Answer 45

- Knowledge of the population characteristics is required: the detailed knowledge of the population characteristics may not be available. - Time consuming: division of the population then random sampling takes time.

Answer 46

Selecting anyone who is willing and available.

Answer 47

Researcher simply asks whoever is around at the time of their study.

Answer 48

- Ease of formation: relatively easy to create as they use people who are readily available, quick and cheap. - Natural experiments: opportunity sampling usually has to be used as the researcher has no control over who is being studied.

Answer 49

- Unrepresentative: sample is likely biased by excluding certain types of participants, depends on where and when the sample is collected. - Researcher bias: may only approach certain types of people. - Self-selection: participant have the option to take part. This attracts certain motivates and personality traits. - Demand characteristics.

Answer 50

Self-selection, participants choose themselves to be part of the research.

Answer 51

May place an advertisement to find participants, or raise hands when researchers asks for volunteers.

Answer 52

- Ease of formation: requires little effort other than placing an advert, cheap and quick. - Less chance of the 'screw you' phenomenon: as they are choosing to take part there is less chance of attempting to sabotage the study.

Answer 53

- Unrepresentative: volunteers tend to be a certain type of person (helpful, keen and curious). - Demand characteristics: volunteers eager to please.

Answer 54

These arise in psychology when a conflict of dilemma exists between the rights of the participants in the research study and the goals of research to produce authentic valid and worthwhile data.

Answer 55

A document produced by the BPS that instructs UK psychologists about what behaviour is or isn't acceptable in dealings with participants.

Answer 56

Respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.

Answer 57

- Informed consent. - Protection of participants. - Objective and free from bias. - Deception. - Confidentiality. - Right to withdraw.

Answer 58

- Involves making people aware of the aims of research, procedure, rights, and what their data will be used for. - Participants can make informed judgement whether to take part without being coerced. - Is part of the briefing. - May cause demand characteristics.

Answer 59

- Participants should be issued with a consent letter detailing all the relevant information that might affect the decision to participate. - If agreed participant signs, if under 16 parent signs.

Answer 60

- Presumptive consent. - Prior general consent. - Retrospective consent.

Answer 61

Rather then getting the consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable, if this group agree then the consent of the original participants is 'presumed'.

Answer 62

Participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies, including one that will involve deception, by consenting the participants are agreeing to be deceived.

Answer 63

Participants are asked for their consent (during debriefing) having already taken part in the study they may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception.

Answer 64

- Means deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation. - Participants who have not received adequate information when they agree to take part, or were deliberately lied to, cannot be said to receive informed consent. - There are times when deception can be justified if it does not cause undue distress.

Answer 65

- At the end of the study participants should be given a full debrief. - Participants will be made aware of the true aims of the study and any details not given during the study, such as the conditions. - Participants should be told what their data is used for and must be given the right to withhold their data.

Answer 66

- Participants shouldn't be placed at more risk than they are in everyday life. - Should be protected from physical and psychological harm (including feeling embarrassed, inadequate or in undue stress or pressure). - An important aspect for protection from harm is being reminded that they have the right to withdraw from the investigation at any time.

Answer 67

- Debriefing. - Participants should be reassured that their behaviour was typical or normal if they have concerns about their performance in the study. - If subjected to stress/embarrassment they may require counselling from the researcher.

Answer 68

- Participants have the right to control information about themselves (right to privacy). - Confidentiality refers to the right to have any personal data protected. - Right to privacy extends to the area the study took place, geographical areas and institutions are not named.

Answer 69

- If personal details are held these must be protected. - Personal details are not often not recorded. - Participants may be referred to as a letter or number. - During the briefing and debriefing, participants are reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process.

Answer 70

Observations are only made in public places where people might expect to be observed by strangers.

Answer 71

Participants should not be offered bribes or promised rewards for their participation, as this puts pressure on them to take part.

Answer 72

- Important non-experimental method. - Observations provide psychologists with a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them. - Allow researchers to study observable behaviour within a natural or a controlled setting. - Allows a researcher to the flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables in a more natural way. - Observation is often used within an experiment as a way of assessing the independent variable.

Answer 73

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.

Answer 74

- All aspects of the environment are free to vary. - Study interactions where they normally take place.

Answer 75

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment i.e. one where variables are managed.

Answer 76

- Controls certain aspects of the research situation. - e.g. the Ainsworth Strange Situation study. - There is some control over variables, including manipulating variable to observe effects and also control extraneous variables.

Answer 77

Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.

Answer 78

- Unaware that they are the focus of the study. - Behaviour is observed in secret. - Behaviour must be public and happening anyway if the observation is to be ethical.

Answer 79

Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.

Answer 80

- Know they are being observed. - Informed consent is given prior to the observation.

Answer 81

Researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.

Answer 82

- Allows researcher to produce first-hand account. - Researcher is involved in roux activities. - e.g. Zimbardo prison study (1971).

Answer 83

Researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.

Answer 84

- Researcher remains separate. - e.g. Ainsworth - observed behind two-way mirror.

Answer 85

- Researcher remains separate. - e.g. Ainsworth - observed behind two-way mirror.

Answer 86

- High external validity: observations usually occur in natural settings meaning participants are more likely to behave naturally. - Practical method: can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical. - Few demand characteristics: with covert observation participants are unaware they are being observed. - Validity: reduced participant reactivity.

Answer 87

- Cause and effect: in all observations it is not possible to establish cause and effect, variables are only observed and not manipulated. - Observer bias: observes may subjective. - Replication: lack of control over variables means the conditions can never be precisely repeated. - Ethics: if unaware they are being observed there are issues regarding consent and privacy. - Demand characteristics: if participants are aware they are observed they may alter their behaviour. - Practical problems: difficulties remaining hidden if covert, issues recording data, getting into groups if overt. - Going native: participant observers may over empathise with the group and loose objectivity.

Answer 88

- Recommended researchers do not conduct observational studies alone. - Single observers may miss important details or may only notice events confirming their hypothesis (bias). - Observation should be carried out by at least two researchers. - Vital that pairs of observers are consistent in their judgements and any data recorded is the same or very similar. - Observers must be trained to establish inter-observers reliability.

Answer 89

- Observers familiarise themselves with the observational categories used. - They then observe the same behaviour at the same time, perhaps as part of a pilot study. - Observers should compare data they have recorded and discuss any differences in interpretations. - Finally, observers should analyse the data from the study. Inter-observer reliability is calculated by correlating each pair of observations made and an overall figure is produced.

Answer 90

Researcher writes down everything they see, produces rich detailed accounts of behaviour, may be appropriate when observations are small scale and involve few participants.

Answer 91

Researchers quantify their observations using a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods.

Answer 92

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable. - Similar to idea of operationalisation. - Target behaviours to be studied should be precisely defined and made observable and measurable. - Behaviour decided on must be objectively observable. - Before the observation begins the researcher should ensure that they have included all the ways in which target behaviour may occur within the behavioural checklist.

Answer 93

Continuous recording is feature of unstructured observations as all details are recorded.

Answer 94

A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.

Answer 95

A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, such as every 60 seconds.

Answer 96

- Behavioural categories make observations more systematic and easier - data is more likely to be quantitative and so easier to analyse. - Unstructured observations gather qualitative data which is rich in detail. - Event sampling is useful when the target behaviour or event happens infrequently and could be missed if time sampling were used. - Time sampling is useful in reducing the number of observations that have been made.

Answer 97

- Unstructured observations are harder to analyse. - Greater risk of observer bias in unstructured observations - may only record what catches their eye. - Behavioural categories must not be ambiguous - they must be observable, measurable and self-evident, categories must also be exclusive and not overlap. - If event is complex details may be overlooked.- instances of observation in time sampling may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole.

Answer 98

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences on a given topic.

Answer 99

A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences.

Answer 100

Doesn’t have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer in anyway they wish, tend to produce qualitative data that is rich in depth and detail but may be difficult to analyse.

Answer 101

Offers a fixed number of responses, such as a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or using rating scales, produce numerical quantitative data by limiting the answers respondents can give, data produced is usually easy to analyse but may lack depth and detail.

Answer 102

-Cost effective. - Quick and easy to analyse and statistical testing can be used to make comparisons. - Lack of investigator effects. - Replication.

Answer 103

- Misunderstanding. - Low response rates. - Superficial issues. - Social desirability bias. - Response bias.

Answer 104

A ‘live’ encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be pre-set or may develop as the interview goes along.

Answer 105

Pre-determined questions that are asked in a fixed order, like a question are but asked face to face in real time.

Answer 106

Works like a conversation, there are no set questions, general aim that certain topics will be discussed, interaction tends to be free flowing, interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers.

Answer 107

Combination of structured and unstructured, there are some fixed questions that must be asked but follow up questions and elaboration can be sought when required.

Answer 108

- Structured interviews are straightforward to replicate due to standardised format. - Complex issues. - Ease misunderstandings. - Unstructured interviews are more flexible.

Answer 109

- Structured interviews can be restrictive as no deviation is allowed and so further detail cannot be sought. - Unstructured data analysis is more difficult as there may be lots of irrelevant information. - Social desirability bias. - Rapport needs to be built. - Interviewer effects. - Ethical issues. - Participant answers.

Answer 110

Respondent indicates their agreement or otherwise with a statement using a scale of usually five points, scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Answer 111

Works in a similar way yo a Likert scale but gets respondents to identify a value that represents their strength of feeling.

Answer 112

List of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them.

Answer 113

1) Aims: questions must address aims. 2) Length: concise, less likely to complete if long. 3) Previous questionnaires: look for successful examples. 4) Question formation: concise, unambiguous, easily understood. 5) Pilot study: trial run to check. 6) Measurement scales: which will provide best data for study.

Answer 114

- Convert questionnaire into interview. - Decisions must be made about who would be the most appropriate interviewer, interpersonal variables can affect this (gender, age, ethnicity, personal characteristics and adopted role, non-verbal communication).

Answer 115

- Overuse of jargon: jargon refers to technical terms that are only familiar to those within a specialised field or area, questions should be written so that non-specialists understand, the best questions are simple and easily understood. - Emotive language and leading questions: attitude to a particular topic may be clear from how a question is phrased, emotive language may unduly influence the participant and so should have neutral phrasing, leading questions try to guide the respondent to a particular answer and so bias the results. - Double barrelled questions and double negatives: double barrelled contains two questions in one which makes answering difficult, double negative questions may be difficult for respondents to make sense of.

Answer 116

Data that is expressed in words and is non-numerical. - Expressed in words rather than numbers or statistics. - May take the form of a written description of the thoughts, feelings and opinions of participants. - Qualitative methods of data collection are those that are concerned with the interpretation of language form such as an interview.

Answer 117

Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers. - Data that is expressed numerically. - Gather data in the form of individual scores from participants such as questionnaire data. - Data is open to being analysed statistically and can be converted into graphs.

Answer 118

- Rich and detailed. - Used for attitudes, opinions, beliefs. - Collected in 'real life' setting. - Greater external validity.

Answer 119

- Subjective. - Imprecise non-numerical measures used. - Low reliability. - More difficult to analyse.

Answer 120

- High in reliability. - Collected in 'artificial' setting. - Simple to analyse. - Less open to bias.

Answer 121

- Objective. - Precise numerical measures used. - Lacks detail. - Used for behaviour. - Fail to represent real life.

Answer 122

Information that has been obtained first-hand by researchers for the purposes of a research project.

Answer 123

- Greater reliability and validity: I know what i am testing (reliability) and there is high external validity. - Directly fits hypotheses: made by the same researchers.

Answer 124

- Greater time and effort required: not quick, or easy, no one can be harmed. - More expensive: need more funding.

Answer 125

Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. In psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics.

Answer 126

- Not been manipulated. - Can be drawn from several sources: increases external validity and increase generalisation. - Quicker as already collected. - Cheaper.

Answer 127

-May not precisely meet hypotheses: based on interpretation, subjective. - May be out of date.

Answer 128

'Research about research', refers to the process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view. This may involve a qualitative review of conclusions and/or a quantitative analysis of the results producing an effect size.

Answer 129

Method of quantifying qualitative data through the use of coding units and commonly performed with media research.

Answer 130

- Ease of application: increased generalisation, and increase external validity. - Complements other methods: can verify results of other research methods, supporting evidence for each other. - Reliability: easier to replicate.

Answer 131

- Descriptive: quantitative data, subjective and not detailed. - Flawed results: limited application as it lacks in detail. - Lack of causality: ignores extraneous variables/confounding variables, cause and effect.

Answer 132

A method of qualitative research linked to content analysis which involves analysing data to identify patterns within it.

Answer 133

1. Familiarisation. 2. Coding. 3. Searching for themes. 4. Reviewing themes. 5. Defining and naming themes. 6. Writing up.

Answer 134

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables.

Answer 135

The variables investigated within a correlation.

Answer 136

As one co-variable increases so does the other.

Answer 137

As one co-variable increases the other decreases.

Answer 138

- In an experiment the researcher manipulates and controls the IV to measure the effect on the DV, as a result of the deliberate change of the IV it is possible to infer the IV caused any change in the DV. - In a correlation there is no such manipulation of a variable so it is not possible to establish cause and effect. - Cannot infer cause and effect with correlations as there may be a third 'intervening variable' involved.

Answer 139

- Useful primary tool: starting point for an experiment, establishes relationship, then you can look at why. - Quick and cheap to carry out: doesnt use all the funding in first stage, can quickly see relationship. - Allows predictions: means you can have a more accurate hypothesis. - Allows quantification of relationships: fast to analyse. - No manipulation: high external validity - natural setting, generalisation.

Answer 140

- Quantification problem: lacks information as to why, reasoning. - Cause and effect: dont know why, other things are in the way (what caused what?). - Extraneous relationship: may interfere in the relationship, no control measures - ignore external factors. - Only works for linear relationships: can only test one IV. - Can be misused and misinterpreted: bias, subjective.

Answer 141

The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data.

Answer 142

General term for any measure of the average value inn a set of data.

Answer 143

The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values there. - most sensitive measure of central tendency as it includes all values and so it is more representative of data as a whole. - easily distorted by extreme values.

Answer 144

The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest. - extreme scores do not affect it. - easy to calculate. - less sensitive than the mean as not all scores are included in final calculation. - can be unrepresentative in small sets of data.

Answer 145

General term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores.

Answer 146

A simple calculation of the dispersion in a set of scores which is worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and adding one as a mathematical correction.

Answer 147

A sophisticated measure of dispersion in a set of scores. It tells us how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score. All the differences are added up and divided by the number of scores. This gives variance. The standard deviation is the quare root of the variance.

Answer 148

A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars.

Answer 149

Discrete data

Answer 150

When the data is divided into categories. Data that can only take certain numbers.

Answer 151

In a histogram the bars touch each other which shows that the data is continuous rather than discrete.

Answer 152

Data that are not in categories, can take any value within a range.

Answer 153

Also represent continuous data. Use points connected by lines to show how something changes in value, for instance, over time.

Answer 154

Scattergrams do not show differences but associations between co-variables.

Answer 155

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak.

Answer 156

A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where data clusters to one end.

Answer 157

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right.

Answer 158

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.

Research Methods Flashcards

(182 cards)