Approaches in psychology Flashcards
What did Descartes suggest?
- Suggested that mind and body represented a dualism.
- They interact in different ways to produce different behaviours and thoughts.
What did Wundt do?
- 1879, Wundt set up his first laboratory where he adopted the use of introspection.
- Wundt isolated conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images, in a process called structuralism (very scientific).
What is introspection?
A means of learning about one’s own currently ongoing mental states or processes.
What is the behaviourist approach?
The behaviourist approach is a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
Define classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is learning by association. This occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new neutral stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unlearned response alone.
Describe Pavlov’s example of classical conditioning.
1) Before conditioning:
–> food (unconditioned stimulus) - unconditioned response (salivation).
2) Before conditioning:
–> bell (neutral stimulus) - no conditioned response (no salivation).
3) During conditioning:
–> bell + food - unconditioned response (salivation).
4) After conditioning:
–> Bell conditioned stimulus - conditioned response (salivation).
What did Pavlov show?
- Pavlov showed how a neutral stimulus (bell) can lead to a new learned response (conditioned response) through association.
- Found stimulus generalisation - dog salivated with change of type and pitch of bell (association made to the new stimulus).
- Cut off point of stimulus generalisation - when stimulus discrimination occurs.
- Found temporal contiguity - the association only occurs if unconditioned and neutral stimulus are presented at the same or around the same time as each other (if gap is too big, no association made).
What is stimulus generalisation?
Stimulus generalisation is when a stimulus becomes generalised to other related stimuli which are also associated with the conditioned response.
What is stimulus discrimination?
Stimulus discrimination is when a stimulus is not associated with the conditioned response as it is too different from the original stimulus.
What is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
What is positive reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement is where a behaviour is more likely to reoccur because of positive consequences.
What is negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement is where a behaviour is more likely to reoccur because of avoidance of negative consequences.
What is punishment?
Punishment means a behaviour is less likely to reoccur because of the negative consequences.
Describe Skinner’s views of operant conditioning.
- Skinner believed learning is an active process whereby humans operate on their environment.
- 3 types of consequences for behaviour in operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.
- Positive and negative reinforcement increase the chance of a behaviour being repeated - where punishment decreases it.
Describe how Skinner researched operant conditioning.
He put an animal in the Skinner Box where an animal pushes a lever and the box would deliver either a positive reinforcement (food) or a punishment/negative reinforcement (electric shock).
What are the advantages of the behaviourist approach?
- The use of scientific methodology gave psychology credulity - highly controlled and replicable.
- Real life application - token economy systems (reward appropriate behaviour with tokens that can then be exchanged for rewards).
What are the disadvantages of the behaviourist approach?
- Deterministic - assumes people are passive puppets of their circumstances, ignores free will.
- Ignore wider influences of cognitive processing.
- Ethical issues- harm to animals in Skinner box.
- Application of animal studies to humans.
- Support nurture (ignores impact of nature).
- Spotaneous behaviour is not easily explained by classical or operant conditioning.
What were Bandura’s assumptions?
- Agreed that behaviour is learned from experience.
- SLT proposes a different way to learn - through observation and limitation of others within a social context (social learning).
- SLT suggests learning happens directly (through classical and operant conditioning) and indirectly.
Behaviour is learned from the environment, ignoring the genetic influence on behaviour. - Behaviour is learned from observing others and the reinforcement or punishment they receive.
Explain vicarious reinforcement.
- For indirect learning to take place an individual observes the behaviour of others.
- Learner may imitate the behaviour but in general imitation only occurs if behaviour is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) rather than punished.
- In vicarious reinforcement, the learner observes the behaviour and the consequences of a behaviour.
What is SLT?
SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning theory (behaviourism) and the cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.
Describe mediational processes
- SLT is the bridge between traditional learning theory (behaviourism) and the cognitive approach as it focuses on how mental factors are involved.
- The mental factors mediate (intervene) in the learning process to determine whether s new response is required.
Explain the four meditational process Bandura identified (1977)
1) attention: the extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
2) retention: how well the behaviour is remembered.
3) motor reproduction: ability of the observer to perform the behaviour.
4) motivation: the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
- Attention and retention relate to learning of behaviour.
- Motor reproduction and motivation relate to performance of behaviour.
- Unlike traditional behaviourism, learning and performance do not need to occur together.
- Observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time.
Explain identification
- People (especially children) are more likely to imitate the behaviour of those they identify with - role models.
- Process is called modelling.
- A person becomes a role model if they possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are physically attractive and have high status.
- Role models do not have to be physically present - implications from the media.
What are the advantages of the SLT?
- Neither classical conditioning nor operate conditioning can account for learning on their own - SLT offers a more comprehensive explanation by accounting for meditational processes.
- SLT can explain cultural differences in behaviour - differences are due to different observational contexts.
- Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism (not merely influenced by the environment but also exerts an influence upon it) - suggests some free will in behaviour.
- Applicable - video nasties impact on children.
- SLT can explain the initiation of behaviours.
What are the disadvantages of SLT
- Over reliance on laboratory experiments - the children may have suffered from demand characteristics (acting differently due to the researcher presence).
- Ignores biological factors - there were gender difference that cannot be accounted for by SLT in the aggression shown towards the Bobo doll (boys found to be more aggressive than girls).
- Cumberbatch (2001) - disputes the link between media and real life violence.
- SLT cannot explain behaviour where there is no apparent role model.
What is the cognitive approach?
The cognitive approach uses experimental research methods to study internal mental processes such as attention, perception, memory and decision-making.
What is the information-processing model?
Input (comes from the environment via the sense and is encoded but the individual) —> processing (information one encoded can be processed - such as processing of schemas) —>output (behavioural response, emitted following processing).
What are the assumptions made within the cognitive approach?
- Thought processes can and should be scientifically studied - inspection is too unscientific and well controlled laboratory studies can investigate thinking.
- Can investigate areas neglected by behaviourists such as memory, perception and thinking.
- Cognitive psychologists study these ‘private’ processes indirectly by making inferences about what is going on in the mind.
- The mind works like a computer in that it has input from ours senses which then processes and produces an output such as language or specific behaviours.
- Stimulus and response is appropriate but only if the thought processes that occur between stimulus and response are acknowledged (direct criticism of behaviourism).
What are theoretical and computer models?
- Studies internal processes through theoretical models - information processing approach (input -> storage -> retrieval).
- Uses computer models, ‘computer analogy’ suggesting there are similarities in processing.
- Models includes concept of cerebral processing unit (brain), coding (turn information into usable format), and the use of stores (hold information).
Describe the role of schema.
- Schemas are frameworks of ideas and information developed through experience.
- Aid in interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system.
- Babies born with simple motor schema (become more sophisticated with age).
- Mental shortcut, can process lots of info quickly..
- May lead to errors in perception.
- Means we all see own version of reality - unique, same culture similar schema.
- Important role in memory formation.
Explain the emergence of cognitive neuroscience.
- Cognitive neuroscience is the study of specific brain structure on mental processes.
- Broca’s area - damage to frontal lobe can damage speech.
- Brain scanning techniques (PET & fMRI) lead to further discovery of mental processes.
What are the advantages of the cognitive approach.
- Focus of cognitive approach is the importance of thought processes: have great influence on behaviour.
- Uses scientific methodology: laboratory experiments have scientific rigour.
- Application: treatment of depression CBT.
- Application: advancing field of AI.
- Less deterministic than other approaches: focus on soft determinism (recognises cognitive system can only operate within the limits of what we know).
What are the disadvantages of the cognitive approach.
- Lacks validity: artificial tasks/environment of laboratory experiments.
- Use of models oversimplifies complex mental processes: ignores role of emotion.
- Mechanistic: compares people to computers, ignores free will.
What is the psychodynamic approach?
A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics) most of which are unconscious that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.
What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
- Unconscious mind: driving force behind behaviour.
- Instincts/drive: motivate our behaviour (Libido - life instinct, Thanatos - death instinct).
- Early childhood experiences: key role in shaping later development.
What is the role of the unconscious?
- Freud suggested the part of the mind that we know about and are aware of is the conscious mind - the ‘tip of the iceberg’.
- Most of the mind is made up of the unconscious.
- Unconscious - part of the mind that we are unaware of but continues to direct much of our behaviour, vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on behaviour and personality.
- Unconscious can contain threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed, these can be accessed during dreams or through parapraxis.
- Just below the surface of the unconscious mind is the preconscious which contains thought and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired.
What is the id?
Entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification.
What are the features of the id?
- primitive part of the personality.
- operates on the pleasure principle.
- mass of unconscious drives and instincts.
- only the id is present at birth.
What is the ego?
The reality check that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego.
What are the features of the ego?
- Works on the reality principle.
- Mediator between the other two parts of the personality.
- Ego develops around 2 years and role is to reduce conflict between the demands of the id and superego (this can be done through defence mechanisms).
What is the superego?
The moralistic part of the personality which represents the ideal self, how we ought to be.
What are the features of the superego>
- Formed at the end of the phallic stage, around age of 5.
- Internalised sense of right and wrong.
- Based on morality principle, represents the moral standards of the child’s same sex parent and punishes the ego for wrongdoing (through guilt).
What are the psychosexual stages (as a whole)?
5 developmental stages that all children pass through, at each stage there is a different conflict the outcome of which determines future development.
- Any psychosexual conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation, where the child becomes stuck and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with this stage through adult life.
When is the oral stage?
0-1 years.
Describe the oral stage.
Focus of pleasure is the mouth, mother’s breast is the object of desire.
What is the consequence of unresolved desire in the oral stage?
Oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, being sarcastic, critical.
When is the anal stage?
1-3 years.
Describe the anal stage.
Focus of pleasure is the anus, child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.
