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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is reliability

A

the extent to which a test produces CONSISTENT results

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2
Q

what is validity

A

the extent to which a test produces LEGITIMATE results

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3
Q

What is internal validity

A

the extent to which a test measures what it is SET OUT to measure

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4
Q

What is external validity

A

extent to which findings can be GENERALISED beyond RESEARCH settings

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5
Q

what is ecological validity

A

the extent to which findings can be GENERALISED to REAL LIFE settings

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6
Q

what is temporal validity

A

the extent to which findings can be GENERALISED to OTHER TIMES e.g history

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7
Q

what is a variable

A

anything open to CHANGE

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8
Q

what is an independent variable

A

the variable that the researcher MANIPULATES. usually made up or two or more variables

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9
Q

what is a dependant variable

A

the variable that the researcher MEASURES to see if it has changed after the independent variable has been manipulated

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10
Q

what is an extraneous variable

A

variables other than the independent variable that could affect the dependant variable

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11
Q

what is the cofounding variable

A

uncontrolled extraneous variable that affects the dependant variable and therefore confuses the results

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12
Q

what does operationalisation mean

A

the independent variable and dependant variable should be clearly defined so they can be manipulated and measured

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13
Q

how do you operationalise the independent variable

A

by expressing the conditions that are going to be tested

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14
Q

how do you operationalise the dependent variable

A

by expressing exactly what will be measured

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15
Q

What is the definition of Participant variables?

A
  • refers to the characteristics of participants
  • some participants may perform better because of these characteristics rather than because of the conditions of the independent variable they experience
  • Only act as an extraneous variable when an independent groups design is used (diff groups of participants are tested in each condition of the iv).
    examples - age, IQ, gender
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16
Q

How can we control participant variables? (two methods)

A

random allocation using a number generator or random allocation using the lottery method

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17
Q

What is the definition of situational variables?

A
  • features of the environment that affect the results of the experiment e.g time of day.
  • they act as extraneous variables (if they are relevant to the dependant variable)
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18
Q

How can we control situational variables

A

standardisation (when procedures and instructions are kept the same)

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19
Q

What is the definition of counterbalancing (ABBA)

A

One half of participants do the experiment in condition A then B, other half do condition B then condition A

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20
Q

What is the definition of random allocation

A

allocating participants to separate conditions using a randomisation technique

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21
Q

What is the dentition of standardisation

A

keeping the experimental methods as identical as possible

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22
Q

What is the definition of randomisation

A

the use of chance to reduce the researcher’s influence on the design

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23
Q

What are order effects?

A

Order effects act as an extraneous variable when a repeated measures experimental design is used (when the same group of participants are tested in all conditions of the iv)
Participants may underperform in the second condition due to tiredness or boredom, or over perform due to practice

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24
Q

How can we control order effects?

A

Through counterbalancing

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25
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

clues/signals that help participants to guess the aim of the experiment, causing them to change their behaviour for example in order to please the researcher. Participants are more likely to guess the aim when taking part in all conditions

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26
Q

How can we control demand characteristics?

A

Independent groups design (diff groups of participants are tested in each condition of the Iv)
or
single blind design, where participant is unaware of research aims and what condition they are experiencing

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27
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Affects the researcher has on the research outcome, e.g age, gender, communication style

28
Q

How can we control investigator effects?

A

Double blind design, where both participant and researcher are unaware of research aims and conditions of the iv.
or
randomisation

29
Q

What is the definition of an aim

A

the intended purpose of a psychological investigation. We always start aims with, ‘to investigate’

30
Q

What is the definition of a hypothesis

A

A statement that predicts the outcome of a psychological investigation

31
Q

What are the names of the two types of hypothesis

A

Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. always write BOTH in an exam.

32
Q

What is the definition of an alternative hypothesis

A

a statement which predicts a difference or correlation in results

33
Q

what is the definition of a null hypothesis

A

a statement which predicts NO difference in correlation or results

34
Q

What happens to the null and alternative hypotheses if the researcher finds significant results?

A

null hypothesis rejected.
alternative hypothesis accepted.

35
Q

What happens to the null and alternative hypotheses if the researcher does not find results?

A

null hypothesis accepted.
alternative hypothesis rejected.

36
Q

What are the two types of alternative hypothesis?

A

Directional alternative hypothesis and Non directional alternative hypothesis

37
Q

What is the definition of a directional alternative hypothesis?

A

an alternative hypothesis states the direction of a predicted difference or correlation in results e.g there will be a positive correlation

38
Q

What is the definition of a non directional alternative hypothesis>

A

An alternative hypothesis that does not state the direction of the predicted difference or correlation in results e.g there will be a correlation

39
Q

How do we know which alternative hypothesis to use?

A

directional alternative normally used in experiments other people have done before, because you can expect to find the same results as them, non directional normally used in experiments done for the first time

40
Q

What do you need to include if you are writing a hypothesis for an experiment?

A

researcher is looking for a difference. Hypothesis must include an IV and a DV. They must also operationalise both the IV and Dv

41
Q

How do you write a hypothesis for a correlation

A

researcher is looking for a relationship.
must include co variables and operationalise the co variables

42
Q

What is a target population?

A

The population of individuals that the researcher is interested in

43
Q

What does it mean if a sample is representative of the population?

A

It is an accurate reflection of the target population, so the results can be generalised to the target population

44
Q

What does it mean if a sample is unrepresentative of the population?

A

It is not an accurate reflection of the target population, so the findings cannot be generalised to the population

45
Q

What is opportunity sampling, and the positives and negatives of it?

A

When participants are selected based on being available at time of study.
+
>Quick and easy
BUT
-
>Likely to create a biased sample, as sample is drawn from a small part of population. Not likely to be generalised.

46
Q

What is volunteer sampling and the positives and negatives of it?

A

Volunteering to take part in study by responding to advertisement, place in an area where likely to be seen by target population.

+
>access to wide variety of participants. Sample = more representative.
-
>Likely to create a biased sample, due to volunteer bias. Not likely to be generalised.

47
Q

What is Random sampling and the positives and negatives of it?

A

Participants are selected using a random number technique, e.g using lottery method.

+
>Likely to create an unbiased sample.
>All members have equal chance
>Likely to be generalised

-
>If sample = small, could still be biased.
>Requires researcher to generate list of all pts, = time consuming and challenging.

48
Q

What is systematic sampling and the positives and negatives of it?

A

Participants are selected using a predetermined system
Members added to a list, nth member selected.

+
>unlikely to be biased.
>Likely to be generalised (because participants selected using objective system)

  • > not truly unbiased unless researcher selects numerical interval using a random technique.
49
Q

What is stratified sampling and the positives and negatives of it?

A

subgroups within target population identified.

+
>Likely to create an unbiased sample, because there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of subgroups.
>Likely to be generalised.

-
>Very time consuming.

50
Q

What is the definition of ethical issues?

A

conflicts between the rights of participants and what the researcher needs to do to conduct useful and meaningful research.

51
Q

What are the four main ethical issues?

A

informed consent - tell pts what they have to do
deception - don’t lie or withhold info from pts
protection from harm - psychological or physical
privacy + confidentiality - pts should be able to control flow of info

52
Q

How do we deal with ethical issues?

A

The British psychological society produces a set of ethical guidelines, which are implemented by ethics committees.
Researchers have a professional duty to observe theses guidelines when conduction research, if they don’t, they may lose their jobs or may lead to disbarment from bps.

53
Q

What is the ethical issue of informed consent?

A
  • getting informed consent means pts should know research aims and procedures.
  • can lead to demand characteristics.
54
Q

How should we deal with the ethical issue of informed consent?

A
  • pts should be given a consent form with info that may affect their decision to consent.
  • or presumptive consent given (similar group gives consent)
55
Q

What is the ethical issue of deception?

A

deliberately misleading or withholding info from pts = pts cannot consent
can lead to demand characteristics which would invalidate findings

56
Q

How should we deal with the ethical issue of deception?

A
  • need for deception should be approved by ethics committee (cost-benefit judgement)
  • if deceived = given debrief and informed of true aims + right to withdraw consent
57
Q

What is the ethical issue of protection from harm?

A

should not be placed in more risk that pts would be in daily life, including feeling embarrassed or under pressure. sometimes difficult to predict whether pts will be harmed

58
Q

How should we control the ethical issue of protection from harm?

A
  • need for harm should be approved by ethics committee
    -pts given debrief if harmed
  • pts may require counselling, researcher has to provide this.
59
Q

What is the ethical issue of privacy and confidentiality

A
  • pts have right to control flow of info
  • may be difficult to avoid an invasion of privacy when studying pts without their awareness
60
Q

How do we control the ethical issue of privacy and confidentiality?

A
  • if personal details are withheld, must be protected
  • normally initials of pts used instead of names
61
Q

What do you need to include when writing a consent form?

A
  • aim of investigation
    -procedure
  • assurance data kept confidential
  • assurance of right to withdraw
  • statement that says pts have read and understood what they’re agreeing to (I have been informed about the aims and procedures involved in the experiment I am about to participate in and have had any questions answered satisfactory)
  • space for signature for participants and space for contact details
62
Q

What is numerical data? What are the strengths and weaknesses of using it?

A

a type of quantitive data.
+
>easy to analyse
>unbiased conclusions can be drawn up

  • > may lack detail
    conclusions may lack internal validity
63
Q

What is non-numerical data and the strengths and weaknesses of using it?

A

a type of qualitative data.
+
>rich in detail
>conclusions likely to have high external validity

-
>difficult to analyse
>conclusions tend to lie on subjective interpretations (subject to bias)

64
Q

What is primary data and the strengths and weaknesses of using it?

A

data collected directly from first hand experience, during the study. The data relates specifically to aims or hypothesis of study.

+
>researcher has control over data, can make sure it fits aims and hypothesis

-
>lengthy and expensive process
(opposite to secondary)

65
Q

What is secondary data and the strengths and weaknesses of using it?

A

data collected before study was conducted.
Meta analysis studies use secondary data.
Data was collected for purposes other than current one.

+
>quicker and cheaper to use someone else data.

  • > researcher has no control over data. may not fit aims and hypotheses.
    (opposite to primary)

Psychology (5 decks)

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