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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an experimental method?

A

involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable (lab, field, natural, or quasi)

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2
Q

What is an aim?

A

a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study

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3
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

a clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated (stated at the outset of a study)

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4
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

states the direction of the difference or relationship

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5
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

doesn’t state the direction of the difference or relationship

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6
Q

What are variables?

A

any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation (used to determine if changes in one thing result in changes in another)

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7
Q

What is operationalisation?

A

clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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8
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

any variable, other than the IV, that may affect the DV if not controlled.

nuisance variables that don’t vary systematically with the IV

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9
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

an extraneous variable but the key feature is that a confounding variable varies systematically with the IV (so can’t tell if any change in DV is due to the IV or confounding variable

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10
Q

What is a demand characteristic?

A

any cue from the researcher or research situation that may be interpreted by ppts as revealing the purpose of an investigation

-may lead to a ppt changing their behaviour within the research situation

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11
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

any effects of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV)

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12
Q

What is randomisation?

A

the use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions

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13
Q

What is standardisation?

A

using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all ppts in a research study

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14
Q

What is experimental design?

A

the different ways ppts can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

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15
Q

What is an independent group design?

A

ppts are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition

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16
Q

What are repeat measures?

A

all ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment

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17
Q

What is a matched pair design?

A

pairs of ppts are first matched on some variables that may affect the DV

each of the pair is assigned to each condition

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18
Q

What is random allocation?

A

an attempt to control for ppt variables in an independent groups design, which ensures that each ppt has the same chance of being in one condition as any other

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19
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

an attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design:
half ppts experience the conditions in one order
the other half in the opposite order

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20
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

an experiment that takes place under a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables

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21
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

an experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

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22
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

an experiment where the change in the IV isn’t due to the researcher but would’ve happened even if they weren’t there

the researcher records the effect on a DV they’ve decided on

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23
Q

What is a quasi-experiment?

A

a study that’s almost an experiment, but lacks key ingredients

the IV hasn’t been determined by anyone - the ‘variables’ simply exist

(strictly speaking, not an experiment)

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24
Q

What is a population?

A

a group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn

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25
Q

What is a sample?

A

a group of people from a target population who are used as a representation of the population

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26
Q

What is bias? (in sampling context)

A

when certain groups are over- or under-represented within the sample selected for (limits generalisations to the target population)

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27
Q

What is generalisation?

A

the extents to which findings and conclusions from a certain investigation can be broadly applied to the population (must be representative of target population)

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28
Q

What is a random sample?

A

all members of the target population have an equal chance of selection

  • obtain a list of all members
  • assign each name a number
  • use a random number generator to select ppts
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29
Q

What is a systematic sample?

A

when every nth number of the target population is selected

  • a sampling frame is produced (e.g.: list of names in alphabetical order)
  • sampling system is nominated (i.e.: every 3rd person)
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30
Q

What is a stratified sample?

A

the composition of the sample reflects the proportion of people in certain subgroups within the target population or wider population

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31
Q

What is an opportunity sample?

A

select anyone who happens to be willing and available

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32
Q

What is a volunteer sample?

A

ppts select themselves to be part of the sample

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33
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

a small-scale version of an investigation before the real investigation is conducted

aims to check procedures, materials, measuring scales, etc. work to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications

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34
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur

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35
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment

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36
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

ppts’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

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37
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

ppts’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

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38
Q

What is participant observation?

A

the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording

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39
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording

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40
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalised)

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41
Q

What is event sampling?

A

a target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

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42
Q

What is time sampling?

A

a target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame (e.g.: every 60 seconds)

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43
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

a set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences

44
Q

What is an interview?

A

a ‘live’ encounter where one person (interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thought and/or experiences

the questions may be pre-set (structured) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured)

45
Q

What is a correlation?

A

an association between two co-variables

46
Q

What is a co-variable?

A

the variables investigated within an investigation

not referred to as IV or DV because correlation investigates the association between the variables, not showing a cause-and-effect relationship

47
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

data expressed in words and non-numerical (can be converted to numbers for analysis)

48
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

data that can be counted (usually numbers)

49
Q

What is primary data?

A

information obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purpose of a research project

  • often gathered directly from ppts as part of an experiment, self-report or observation
50
Q

What is secondary data?

A

information already collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project

51
Q

What is a meta-analysis?

A

the process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a particular topic

aim to produce an overall statistical conclusion based on a range of studies

52
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

the use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data

53
Q

What is a measure of central tendency?

A

the general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data

  • mean
  • median
  • mode
54
Q

What is a strength of using a mean?

A

includes all scores/values, making the data more representative as a whole

55
Q

What is a weakness of using a mean?

A

it is easily distorted by extreme values

56
Q

What are strengths of the median?

A
  • extreme scores don’t affect
  • easy to calculate
57
Q

What is a weakness of the median?

A

less sensitive (than the mean), as actual values of lower and higher numbers are ignored and extreme values may be important

58
Q

What are strengths of the mode?

A
  • easy to calculate
  • use for data in categories
59
Q

What are weaknesses of the mode?

A
  • crude measure (can be very different from mean and median, so can be unrepresentative of the data)
  • can have multiple modes in the data
60
Q

What is a strength of the range?

A
  • easy to calculate (largest-smallest +1)
61
Q

What are the weaknesses of the range?

A
  • only takes only accounts for most extreme values, so may be unrepresentative of the whole data set
  • doesn’t indicate how closely grouped the data is
62
Q

What is a strength of standard deviation?

A

more precise (than range) as includes all values

63
Q

What is the measure of dispersion?

A

based on the spread of scores to show how far scores vary and differ from one another

  • range
  • standard deviation
64
Q

What are weaknesses of standard deviation?

A
  • can be distorted by a single extreme value
  • extreme values may not be revealed (unlike the range)
65
Q

What is statistical testing?

A

a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected

-allows to find out whether differences or relationships between variables are significant or likely to have occurred by chance

66
Q

What is peer review?

A

assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality

67
Q

What is economy?

A

the state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services

68
Q

What is a case study?

A

an in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event

69
Q

What is content analysis?

A

a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data

70
Q

What is coding?

A

the process of labeling and organizing your qualitative data to identify themes.

71
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data.

-themes often emerge once the data has been coded.

72
Q

What is reliability?

A

refers to how consistent a measuring device is (including psychological tests or observations which assess behaviour)

73
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

a method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions

-this shows to what extent the test produces the same answers

74
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A

the extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour

measured by correlating the observations of two or more observers

75
Q

What is validity?

A

the extent to which an observed effect is genuine
- does it measure what intended
- can it be generalised beyond the research setting?

76
Q

What is face validity?

A

a basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine if it appears to measure what was intended
(e.g.: does a test of anxiety look like it measures anxiety?)

77
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure

78
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations

  • a form of external validity
79
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras

  • a form of external validity
80
Q

What is a statistical test?

A

used to determine a significant difference or correlation exists

81
Q

What is the sign test?

A

a statistical test for a difference in scores between related items

82
Q

What is a level of measurement?

A

quantitative data can be classified into types or levels of measurement

(i.e.: nominal, ordinal and interval)

83
Q

What is nominal data?

A

data represented in the form of categories

  • discrete data (data can only appear in one category)
84
Q

What is interval data?

A

based on numerical scales

(e.g.: stopwatch, scales, thermometer, weighing scales)

85
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

data ordered in some way (e.g.: a rating scale from 1-10)

  • doesn’t have equal intervals between each unit
    -lacks precision (as a subjective opinion)
86
Q

What is a critical value?

A

when testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary or cut-off point between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis

87
Q

What is a type I error?

A

the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (a false positive)

88
Q

What is a type II error?

A

the failure to reject a false null hypothesis (a false negative)

89
Q

What is objectivity?

A

all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence the research process

90
Q

What is the empirical method?

A

scientific approaches that are based on the gatherings of evidence through direct observation and experience

91
Q

What is replicability?

A

the extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers

92
Q

What is falsifiability?

A

the principle that a theory can’t be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue (false)

93
Q

What is theory construction?

A

the process of developing an explanation for the causes of behaviour by systematically gathering evidence and then organising this into a coherent account (theory)

94
Q

What is hypothesis testing?

A

a key feature of a theory is that is should produce statements (hypotheses) which can be tested

can only then be falsified

95
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

96
Q

What is the paradigm shift?

A

the result of a scientific revolution when there is a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline

97
Q

What is triangulation?

A

the use of a number of different sources as evidence.

98
Q

How do you improve validity in experiments?

A
  • using a control group (helps identify that DV due to IV).
  • standardise procedures (minimise ppt reactivity, investigator effects).
  • single/double-blind procedures (reduce demand characteristics).
99
Q

How do you improve validity in observations?

A
  • covert observations (keeps behaviour natural + authentic).
  • keep behavioural categories simple and not too broad or overlapping.
100
Q

How do you improve validity in questionnaires?

A
  • incorporate a lie scale (to assess ppt consistency of response + control effects of social desirability bias).
  • data remains anonymous (to reassure ppts).
101
Q

How do you improve validity of qualitative research?

A
  • triangulation (to prevent interpretation of data).
102
Q

How do you improve reliability of questionnaires?

A
  • test-retest method (ensure correlation exceeds +.80
  • replace open questions with closed, fixed-choice questions.
103
Q

How do you improve reliability of interviews?

A
  • use same interviewer each time.
  • train interviewer (to avoid leading or ambiguous questions).
  • use structured interviews.
104
Q

How do you improve reliability of observations?

A
  • operationalise behavioural categories (ensure measurable + self-evident).
  • checklist possible behaviours (shouldn’t overlap).
  • train observers in using behavioural categories.
105
Q

How do you improve reliability of experiments?

A
  • standardise procedures.

Psychology (6 decks)

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