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Psychology Paper 2 > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an aim?

A

A general statement that explains the purpose of the investigation

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2
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A testable statement or prediction about the variables in a study

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3
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

This type of hypothesis states the direction of difference that the researcher expects to find based on previous research
“Participants who (IV) will recall more/less than participants who (IV)”

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4
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

This type of hypothesis does not state the direction of difference that the researcher expects to find
“There will be a difference in (DV) between the Participants who (IV) compared to the participants who (IV)”

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5
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

This type of hypothesis states there will be no difference between the IV’s effect on the DV
“There will be no difference in (DV) between the Participants who (IV) compared to the participants who (IV)”

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6
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

The variable the researcher manipulates, which is assumed to have a direct effect on the DV

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7
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The variable the researcher measures

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8
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

Any variable other than the IV that HAS HAD an effect on the DV because it was not controlled prior to the study

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9
Q

What is operationalisation?

A

The term used to describe how a variable is clearly and precisely defined

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10
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

Any variable other than the IV that MIGHT effect the DV if it is not controlled - the researcher identifies and controls these prior to the study

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11
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

The participants try to guess the aim of the study and alter their behaviour to try and support or go against what they believe the researcher is trying to find out

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12
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Where a researcher acts in a way to support their prediction

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13
Q

What is randomisation?

A

A method for minimizing extraneous/confounding variables - an objective method to select tasks or participants

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14
Q

What is standardisation?

A

A method for minimizing extraneous/confounding variables - the information given, environment and experience of participants is the same for all

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15
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

An experiment that is carried out in natural conditions, in which the researcher manipulates the IV to measure DV

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16
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A

An experiment conducted under controlled conditions in which the researcher manipulates the IV to measure DV

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17
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

An experiment that is carried out in natural conditions, in which the researcher cannot manipulate the IV, but will still measure naturally occurring IV on DV

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18
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

An experiment where the IV is a naturally occurring difference between people that already exists (age, gender), so the effect of this on DV is examined

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19
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

A type of external validity that refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalized to a real life setting

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20
Q

What is mundane realism?

A

The extent to which the task and procedures are similar to the way events would work in the real world

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21
Q

What is bias?

A

To influence, typically in an unfair direction

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22
Q

What is generalisation?

A

The application of the results from a study to a wider target population (based on the idea that the findings from the original sample will be the same for everyone within target population)

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23
Q

What is an experimental design?

A

The way in which participants are allocated to experimental groups

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24
Q

What is a repeated measures design?

A

The same participants take part in the each condition of the experiment

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25
Q

What is an independent groups design?

A

Different participants are used in each condition of the experiment

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26
Q

What is a matched pairs design?

A

Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables (age or IQ) and then one is places in experimental group and the other in the control group

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27
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Used to deal with repeated measures design - Participant sample is divided in half with one completing the conditions in one order while the other completes them in reverse

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28
Q

What is random allocation?

A

Giving all participants a number and placing them in a hat, drawing out the first half to complete one condition and the rest complete the other

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29
Q

What is sampling?

A

Selecting participants from the target group/population

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30
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Participants from the target group/population who are willing and able to take part are selected by researcher

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31
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Participants self-select themselves to become participants because they volunteer when asked or respond to an advert

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32
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Use of a predetermined system to select participants from a target group - Every nth person

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33
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Identifying everyone within a target population and then selecting the number of participants needed from it

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34
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Researcher divides the target group into sections, each representing a key group that should be present in the final sample, it would be proportionate to target population

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35
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small-scale initial run through of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is carried out

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36
Q

What is a single-blind procedure?

A

Details of the study are kept from the participants but the researcher knows the aim

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37
Q

What is a double-blind procedure?

A

Details are kept from both the participants and research assistant

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38
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures and what their data will be used for with the right to withdraw if they wish

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39
Q

How do you deal with informed consent?

A

Participants should be given a consent letter giving sufficient information to allow them to decide if they wish to participate

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40
Q

What is deception?

A

Researcher should avoid deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at all stages of the investigation

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41
Q

How do you deal with deception?

A

Participants should be made aware of the full aim of the investigation within a debrief along with the right to withdraw their data and offered counselling if experienced stress

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42
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

Participants should not be placed at more risk than they would expect in their daily lives - psychological and physical

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43
Q

How do you deal with protection from harm?

A

Participants offered the right to withdraw from the study at any time and withdraw their data at the end

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44
Q

What is privacy?

A

Participants have the right to control information about themselves

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45
Q

What is confidentiality?

A

If the researcher knows information about the participants then it is the participants right to expect the data to remain secure/undisclosed - personal information like names

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46
Q

How do you deal with privacy/confidentiality?

A

Avoid recording personal details to maintain anonymity

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47
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in a controlled, structured environment, where some extraneous variables can be managed

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48
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting in which it would usually occur. There are no controls over extraneous variables

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49
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

The observer becomes part of the group of people they are studying

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50
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

The observer stays separate from the group they are studying so it can be recorded in an objective manner

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51
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

The observer watches and records the behaviour of participants without their consent - they’re unaware theyre being observered

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52
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

The observer watches and records the behaviour of participants with their consent

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53
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

Using behavioural categories to record behaviour

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54
Q

What is a behavioral category?

A

Operationalising target behaviours so that they can be observed and measured

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55
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

Using behavioural categories to record behaviour and just records all the behaviour seen

56
Q

What is time sampling?

A

A sampling method where the behaviour is recorded at pre-established time frame/intervals

57
Q

What is event sampling?

A

A sampling method in which all the target behaviour is recorded

58
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A type of indirect observation that involves studying the communications people have produced (books, diaries, transcripts) to convert the qualitative data into quantitative data

59
Q

What is a coding unit?

A

Category used to represent a particular type of information the researcher is looking for in the written material

60
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

Qualitative analysis of communication looking for reoccurring themes within descriptive data

61
Q

What is a correlation?

A

A mathematical technique where researchers investigate the strength and direction of an association between two co-variables

62
Q

What is a correlational hypothesis?

A

There will be a positive/negative correlational relationship between X and Y

63
Q

What are co-variables?

A

The variables investigated within a correlation

64
Q

What is a positive correlation?

A

As one co-variable increases so does the other

65
Q

What is a negative correlation

A

As one covariable decreases, so does the other

66
Q

What is zero correlation?

A

An outcome where there is no relationship found between the two covariables

67
Q

What is an intervening variable?

A

An untested variable that might be the reason for the relationship found between the two covariables

68
Q

What is a correlation co-efficient?

A

The numerical value calculated which tells researchers the strength and direction of the relationship between the two covariables

69
Q

What is a self-report technique?

A

Any method where participants state or explain their own feelings, opinions or behaviours in relation to a given topic

70
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

A set of written questions or items used to assess a person’s thoughts, opinions, feelings or behaviours

71
Q

What are open questions?

A

A question which does not have a fixed set of responses to choose from - usually giving qualitative data

72
Q

What are closed questions?

A

A question which does have a fixed set of responses to choose from - usually giving quantitative data

73
Q

What is an interview?

A

A live encounter during which participants are asked a number of questions

74
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

A pre-determined set of questions are asked in a fixed order

75
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

The researcher has no set questions - only a general topic to discuss in a free flowing manner

76
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

The researcher starts with some preset questions but is free to ask follow up questions based on responses given

77
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

The possibility that participants may lie and might not give truthful responses in order to present themselves in a positive light and avoid negative judgement from the researcher - questionnaires and interviews

78
Q

What is a case study?

A

An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, small group, institution or event usually over a long time and the development of an in depth case history

79
Q

What is reliability?

A

A measure of consistency - if the results will be the same on two or more separate occasions

80
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

A way of assessing reliability - The same person is assessed using the same measure on two separate occasions

81
Q

What is inter-rate/observer reliability?

A

This measures the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers/researchers

82
Q

What is validity?

A

The extent to which the findings are true/genuine - if the measure is measuring what is intended

83
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Whether the findings are the result of IV manipulation rather than the cause of some other variable

84
Q

What is face validity?

A

A form of internal validity which is whether a measure appears what it is intending to measure

85
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

A way of assessing the internal validity by comparing the results from the new measure with those gathered using an established measure for the same behaviour

86
Q

What is external validity?

A

Whether the findings are a true representation of that behaviour in a real life setting and the wider population

87
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

A form of external validity which is whether the findings from the study will remain true over time

88
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Numerical data

89
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Descriptive data

90
Q

What is primary data?

A

Data collected first hand

91
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Use of data that has already been collected by someone else

92
Q

What is meta-analysis?

A

A process where a number of studies relating to a topic are reviewed in order to reach an overall conclusion

93
Q

What is nominal data?

A

Data represented in categories

94
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

Data that has been ordered

95
Q

What is interval data?

A

Data that is based on a numerical scale where each unit has an equal distance between them

96
Q

What is the mean?

A

The average from adding up the data and dividing by the number of scores

97
Q

What is the median?

A

Middle value in a set of data once it has been placed in order

98
Q

What is the mode?

A

Most frequently occurring score in a data set

99
Q

What is the range?

A

The spread of scores in a data set - distance between the highest and lowest value

100
Q

What is standard deviation?

A

Shows how far scores are from the mean, the greater the SD, the greater the spread of scores

101
Q

What is a normal distribution?

A

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern - the mean, median and mode are all at the same midpoint of the curve

102
Q

What is a positively skewed distribution?

A

A type of frequency distribution where most people score to the left of the graph

103
Q

What is a negatively skewed distribution?

A

A type of frequency distribution where most people score to the right of the graph

104
Q

What is a scattergram?

A

A graph used in correlational analysis which plots the relationship between two covariables

105
Q

What is a barchart?

A

A type of graph used to display data in discrete categories

106
Q

What is a histogram?

A

A graph used to display continuous data

107
Q

What is significance level?

A

The point at which a researcher can claim to have found a large enough difference or strong enough correlation to claim that an effect has been found

108
Q

What is the usual level of significance?

A

p<0.05

109
Q

What is a calculated value?

A

The value the researcher calculates when they do the statistical test

110
Q

What is a critical value?

A

The value that is given in the table which is the cut off point for significance at a particular level of significance

111
Q

What is a one tailed test?

A

When the hypothesis is directional

112
Q

What is a two tailed test?

A

When the hypothesis is non-directional

113
Q

What is a type 1 error?

A

The experimental hypothesis has been accepted and the null hypothesis has been rejected, when it should have been reversed

114
Q

What is a type 2 error?

A

The experimental hypothesis has been rejected and the null hypothesis has been accepted, when it should have been reversed

115
Q

What is the Rule of R?

A

The calculated value must be equal to or greater than the critical value for significance at the level identified

116
Q

What is a parametric test?

A

A statistical test that only uses interval level data

117
Q

What is a non-parametric test?

A

A statistical test that is used on ordinal and interval level data

118
Q

What is the empirical method?

A

A method where the researcher uses an experiment or direct observation to gather data

119
Q

What is objectivity?

A

Unbiased

120
Q

What is replicability?

A

Where the procedures are carefully reported so that other researchers can repeat it

121
Q

What is falsifiability?

A

The ability to test a theory in order to find out if it can be proved wrong

122
Q

What is theory construction?

A

The process of developing a theory about the proposed cause of behaviour

123
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

A unified framework of basic assumptions, ways of thinking and methods of study that are shared by members of a group or discipline

124
Q

What is a paradigm shift?

A

A change in the unified framework - from one set of shared beliefs to another

125
Q

What is the abstract?

A

First section of a journal article - a short summary containing all the major elements (aims, hypotheses, method, results and discussion)

126
Q

What is the introduction?

A

A literature review - provides details of area of research

127
Q

What is the method?

A

Details to replicate the study including design, sample, materials, procedure and ethical issues

128
Q

What is the results?

A

Summary of key findings

129
Q

What is the discussion?

A

A verbal summary of the results and how these relate to the theory and evidence (in intro) and addresses the limitations of the study and how to overcome these alongside wider implications

130
Q

What are the references?

A

Full details of any source material mentioned in the report

131
Q

How do you correctly reference?

A

Author, date, article title, journal name, volume, page numbers

132
Q

What is a peer review?

A

The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality

133
Q

What is the process of a peer review?

A

Involves all aspects of the written investigation being scrutinized by a small group of experts in the field

134
Q

What are the aims of peer review?

A

To allocate research funding, to validate the quality and relevance of research, to suggest amendments or improvements, prevent opposition to mainstream theories

135
Q

What is an economy?

A

The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services

Psychology Paper 2 (3 decks)

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