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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Experimental Method - AO1

A

Aim - purpose of the investigation.

Hypotheses - testable, operationalised statement.

Directional or non-directional - identifying a difference/correlation or not. Choice depends on previous research.

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2
Q

Variables - AO1

A

IV and DV - IV manipulated, DV measured.

Levels of IVs - experimental or control.

Operationalisation - making variables measurable.

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3
Q

Research Issues - AO1

A

Extraneous variables - nuisance variables but randomly distributed.

Confounding variables - vary systematically with IV.

Demand characteristics - when participant guesses aims of experiment and changes behaviour.

Investigator effects - influence of researcher on DV/design decisions.

Randomisation - chance methods to reduce bias.

Standardisation - ensuring all participants have the same experience.

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4
Q

Experimental Designs - AO1

A

Independent groups - participants in each condition of experiment are different.

Repeated measures - all participants take part in all conditions.

Matched pairs - similar participants paired on participant variables, allocated to condition A or B.

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5
Q

Experimental Designs - AO3

A

Independent groups
- Participant variables not controlled (use random allocation) may still be differences
+ No order effects

Repeated measures
- Order effects (use counterbalancing)
- Demand characteristics
+ Participant variables controlled

Matched pairs
+ No order effects and variables controlled. Little demand characteristics.
- Time and cost consuming.

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6
Q

Types of Experiment - AO1

A

Lab - IV manipulated in controlled setting. Participants go to researcher.

Field - IV manipulated in natural setting - researcher goes to participants.

Natural - IV changes naturally. DV/setting may be in a lab.

Quasi - IV based on an existing difference between people, effect on DV is recorded.

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7
Q

Types of Experiment - AO3

A

Lab
+ High internal validity - control over extraneous variables.
+ Replication more possible (support for findings)
- Low internal validity (DC’s) and low external validity (generalisability.)

Field
+ Higher external/ecological validity (more authentic)
- Lower internal validity (less control)
- Ethical issues (consent not possible)

Natural
+ High external validity (real-world problems)
- Limited opportunities, no random allocation
- No manipulation of IV (no cause and effect)

Quasi
- Issues with lab experiments as often in lab.
- No manipulation of IV or random allocation

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8
Q

Sampling Methods - AO1

A

Random sample - equal chance of selection

Systematic sample - Selecting every nth person from a list

Stratified sample - sample reflects proportions of strata in a population

Opportunity - choosing who is available

Volunteer - participants self-select

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9
Q

Sampling Methods - AO3

A

Random
- Potentially unbiased - control CVs and EVs
+ Time consuming, may not work

Systematic
- Time consuming, those selected may refuse
+ Objective/bias free

Stratified
- Time consuming - cannot account for all subgroups
+ Most representative of population

Opportunity
+ Quick and easy
- Unrepresentative

Volunteer
+ Easy and participants engaged
- Volunteer bias - responsive to cues.

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10
Q

Ethical Issues and How to Deal With Them - AO1

A

Informed consent - advise participants what is involved. Reveals aims.
Signed consent form. Presumptive. Prior general consent. Retrospective. Family.

Deception - misleading participants/withholding information. OK if not distressing.
Debriefing. Right to withdraw. Counselling.

Protection from harm - psychological/physical risk factors.
Deal with in same way as deception.

Privacy and confidentiality - right to control and protect personal data.
Use numbers not names. Data not shared with other researchers.

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11
Q

Pilot Studies and Single/Double Blind - AO1

A

Check procedures and techniques, make changes.

Single-blind - participants aren’t aware of aims until end.

Double-blind - neither participants nor individuals conducting research know the aim/condition.

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12
Q

Types of observation - AO1

A

Naturalistic - behaviour observed where it would normally occur. No control over variables.

Controlled - some control over environment - manipulation of variables.

Covert or overt - observing with/without participants’ knowledge.

Participant or non-participant - join group or remain an outsider.

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13
Q

Types of observation - AO3

A

All observations
- Observer bias and no causal relationships.

Naturalistic
- Low internal validity (no control)
+ high external validity (everyday life)

Controlled
+ High internal validity
- Low external validity (unless covert)

Covert
+ Low demand characteristics
- Ethical issues

Overt
- Behaviour may be different.

Participant
+ Increased external validity
- May lose objectivity

Non-participant
+ More objectivity
- Less insight

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14
Q

Observational Design - AO1

A

Record everything - unstructured. Categories - structured.

Behavioural categories - target behaviours broken down into observable components.

Sampling methods
Time-sampling - count at timed intervals.
Event-sampling - count events.

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15
Q

Observational Design - AO3

A

Structured
+ Numerical - easier to analyse.

Unstructured
- Observer bias
- Qualitative data hard to analyse

Behavioural categories
- Must be observable - no overlap.

Event
+ Useful for infrequent behaviours
- Misses complexity

Time
+ Less effort
- May not represent whole event

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16
Q

Questionnaires - AO1

A

Pre-set list. Can be used to measure DV.

Open and closed questions - fixed-choice or not.

17
Q

Questionnaires - AO3

A

Questionnaires
+ Distribute to many people
+ Fixed choice - easy to analyse
- Social desirability response bias

Closed and open questions
+/- Effects ease of analysis

18
Q

Interviews - AO1

A

Structured interviews - pre-set questions, fixed order, face-to-face.

Unstructured - no formula, just general topic. Questions based on responses.

Semi-structured - some pre-set questions with follow-up.

19
Q

Interviews - AO3

A

Structured
+ Easy to replicate
- Interviewer can’t explain or elaborate

Unstructured
+ Flexible
- Increased interviewer bias
+ Social desirability bias reduced by rapport.

20
Q

Correlations - AO1

A

Types - positive, negative, zero. Strong or weak. Measured from -1 to 1.

Difference between experiment and correlation.
No manipulation of IV - co-variables. No cause and effect.

21
Q

Correlations - AO3

A

+ Quick and economical - using secondary data.
- Can’t demonstrate cause and effect - may be a third variable.
- Often bidirectional (which variable is affecting which)

22
Q

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data - AO1

A

Qualitative - written - non-numerical. Descriptions of thoughts/feelings.

Quantitative - expressed numerically.

23
Q

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data - AO3

A

Qualitative
+ Richer data. Greater external validity.
- Difficult to analyse/subjective.

Quantitative
+ Can statistically analyse
+ Less bias
- Narrower in meaning

24
Q

Primary vs. Secondary data - AO1 + AO3

A

Primary
Collected first-hand for purpose of investigation.
+ Targets relevant info
- Time consuming

Secondary
Collected by someone else (eg. meta analysis.)
+ Inexpensive and easy
- Variation in quality - eg. outdated.

25
Q

Meta-analysis - AO1 + AO3

A

Collection of multiple studies and statistical analysis of them. Secondary data. Larger number of studies the better.

+ High validity
- Publication bias/file drawer problem.

26
Q

Measures of central Tendency - AO1 + AO3

A

Mean
Add up, divide by N.
+ Most sensitive and representative.
- Distorted by extreme values.

Median
The middle value
+ Less affected by extremes.
- Not sensitive.

Mode
Most frequently occurring result
+ Relevant to nominal data
- Crude, unrepresentative

27
Q

Measures of Dispersion - AO1 + AO3

A

Range
Subtract lowest from highest (add 1.)
+ Easy to calculate
- Unrepresentative if there are extremes

Standard deviation
How much scores deviate from mean
+ More precise than mean
- Distorted by extreme values

28
Q

Presentation of Qualitative data - AO1

A

Tables - raw scores in a grid.

Bar charts - discrete categorical data.

Histogram - continuous data rather than discrete, no space between bars.

Scattergrams - shows strength and relationship between co-variables.

Normal distribution - bell curve. Mean, median and mode all the same. Tails never touch 0.

Skewed distributions - negative leans right, positive leans left. On positive, goes mode median mean.

29
Q

Peer review - AO1 + AO3

A

Main aims:
Allocate funds
Validate quality of research.
Suggest improvements

  • Anonymous - may permit unjustified criticisms by rivals
  • Publication bias - file drawer problem creates false impression of current knowledge
  • Burying ground-breaking research - maintains status quo
30
Q

Case Studies - AO1 + AO3

A

Detailed analysis of an unusual individual or event. May also be ‘typical’ behaviours.
May involve a case history - qualitative but also quantitative data. Often longitudinal

+ Insight into unusual cases, e.g. HM provides understanding of normal functioning. Generate hypothesis for future studies

  • Generalisability issues - small samples. Conclusions based on subjective interpretations and subjective data from participants.
31
Q

Content Analysis - AO1 + AO3

A

Content analysis - form of observation where communication is studied indirectly. Data must be categorised into meaningful units and operationalised.

Thematic analysis - recurrent themes that keep ‘cropping up’ are identified and supported by quotes.

+ Fewer ethical issues, high external validity, flexible

  • Information may be studied out of context and be subjective. Reflexivity aims to address issue of bias.
32
Q

Ways of assessing reliability - AO1

A

Reliability - does the measurement produce the same result when the thing being measured has changed.

Test-retest - same test is administered to the same person on different occasions and results compared.

Inter-rater/inter-observer - observers compare data in a pilot study or at the end of study to make sure behavioural categories are consistently applied.

Correlation coefficient of at least +0.80

33
Q

Ways of improving reliability - AO1

A

Questionnaires
Change to closed questions - less interpretation, less ambiguous.

Interviews
Avoid leading questions or ambiguity, ensure interviewers are trained.

Observations
Behavioural categories operationalised, more training may be needed.

Experiments
Standardised procedures ensures consistency

34
Q

Types of validity - AO1

A

Validity - whether a psychological test, observation etc., produces a result that is legitimate.

Psychology (11 decks)

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