Research Methods Flashcards
Experimental Method - AO1
Aim - purpose of the investigation.
Hypotheses - testable, operationalised statement.
Directional or non-directional - identifying a difference/correlation or not. Choice depends on previous research.
Variables - AO1
IV and DV - IV manipulated, DV measured.
Levels of IVs - experimental or control.
Operationalisation - making variables measurable.
Research Issues - AO1
Extraneous variables - nuisance variables but randomly distributed.
Confounding variables - vary systematically with IV.
Demand characteristics - when participant guesses aims of experiment and changes behaviour.
Investigator effects - influence of researcher on DV/design decisions.
Randomisation - chance methods to reduce bias.
Standardisation - ensuring all participants have the same experience.
Experimental Designs - AO1
Independent groups - participants in each condition of experiment are different.
Repeated measures - all participants take part in all conditions.
Matched pairs - similar participants paired on participant variables, allocated to condition A or B.
Experimental Designs - AO3
Independent groups
- Participant variables not controlled (use random allocation) may still be differences
+ No order effects
Repeated measures
- Order effects (use counterbalancing)
- Demand characteristics
+ Participant variables controlled
Matched pairs
+ No order effects and variables controlled. Little demand characteristics.
- Time and cost consuming.
Types of Experiment - AO1
Lab - IV manipulated in controlled setting. Participants go to researcher.
Field - IV manipulated in natural setting - researcher goes to participants.
Natural - IV changes naturally. DV/setting may be in a lab.
Quasi - IV based on an existing difference between people, effect on DV is recorded.
Types of Experiment - AO3
Lab
+ High internal validity - control over extraneous variables.
+ Replication more possible (support for findings)
- Low internal validity (DC’s) and low external validity (generalisability.)
Field
+ Higher external/ecological validity (more authentic)
- Lower internal validity (less control)
- Ethical issues (consent not possible)
Natural
+ High external validity (real-world problems)
- Limited opportunities, no random allocation
- No manipulation of IV (no cause and effect)
Quasi
- Issues with lab experiments as often in lab.
- No manipulation of IV or random allocation
Sampling Methods - AO1
Random sample - equal chance of selection
Systematic sample - Selecting every nth person from a list
Stratified sample - sample reflects proportions of strata in a population
Opportunity - choosing who is available
Volunteer - participants self-select
Sampling Methods - AO3
Random
- Potentially unbiased - control CVs and EVs
+ Time consuming, may not work
Systematic
- Time consuming, those selected may refuse
+ Objective/bias free
Stratified
- Time consuming - cannot account for all subgroups
+ Most representative of population
Opportunity
+ Quick and easy
- Unrepresentative
Volunteer
+ Easy and participants engaged
- Volunteer bias - responsive to cues.
Ethical Issues and How to Deal With Them - AO1
Informed consent - advise participants what is involved. Reveals aims.
Signed consent form. Presumptive. Prior general consent. Retrospective. Family.
Deception - misleading participants/withholding information. OK if not distressing.
Debriefing. Right to withdraw. Counselling.
Protection from harm - psychological/physical risk factors.
Deal with in same way as deception.
Privacy and confidentiality - right to control and protect personal data.
Use numbers not names. Data not shared with other researchers.
Pilot Studies and Single/Double Blind - AO1
Check procedures and techniques, make changes.
Single-blind - participants aren’t aware of aims until end.
Double-blind - neither participants nor individuals conducting research know the aim/condition.
Types of observation - AO1
Naturalistic - behaviour observed where it would normally occur. No control over variables.
Controlled - some control over environment - manipulation of variables.
Covert or overt - observing with/without participants’ knowledge.
Participant or non-participant - join group or remain an outsider.
Types of observation - AO3
All observations
- Observer bias and no causal relationships.
Naturalistic
- Low internal validity (no control)
+ high external validity (everyday life)
Controlled
+ High internal validity
- Low external validity (unless covert)
Covert
+ Low demand characteristics
- Ethical issues
Overt
- Behaviour may be different.
Participant
+ Increased external validity
- May lose objectivity
Non-participant
+ More objectivity
- Less insight
Observational Design - AO1
Record everything - unstructured. Categories - structured.
Behavioural categories - target behaviours broken down into observable components.
Sampling methods
Time-sampling - count at timed intervals.
Event-sampling - count events.
Observational Design - AO3
Structured
+ Numerical - easier to analyse.
Unstructured
- Observer bias
- Qualitative data hard to analyse
Behavioural categories
- Must be observable - no overlap.
Event
+ Useful for infrequent behaviours
- Misses complexity
Time
+ Less effort
- May not represent whole event
Questionnaires - AO1
Pre-set list. Can be used to measure DV.
Open and closed questions - fixed-choice or not.
Questionnaires - AO3
Questionnaires
+ Distribute to many people
+ Fixed choice - easy to analyse
- Social desirability response bias
Closed and open questions
+/- Effects ease of analysis
Interviews - AO1
Structured interviews - pre-set questions, fixed order, face-to-face.
Unstructured - no formula, just general topic. Questions based on responses.
Semi-structured - some pre-set questions with follow-up.
Interviews - AO3
Structured
+ Easy to replicate
- Interviewer can’t explain or elaborate
Unstructured
+ Flexible
- Increased interviewer bias
+ Social desirability bias reduced by rapport.
Correlations - AO1
Types - positive, negative, zero. Strong or weak. Measured from -1 to 1.
Difference between experiment and correlation.
No manipulation of IV - co-variables. No cause and effect.
Correlations - AO3
+ Quick and economical - using secondary data.
- Can’t demonstrate cause and effect - may be a third variable.
- Often bidirectional (which variable is affecting which)
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data - AO1
Qualitative - written - non-numerical. Descriptions of thoughts/feelings.
Quantitative - expressed numerically.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data - AO3
Qualitative
+ Richer data. Greater external validity.
- Difficult to analyse/subjective.
Quantitative
+ Can statistically analyse
+ Less bias
- Narrower in meaning
Primary vs. Secondary data - AO1 + AO3
Primary
Collected first-hand for purpose of investigation.
+ Targets relevant info
- Time consuming
Secondary
Collected by someone else (eg. meta analysis.)
+ Inexpensive and easy
- Variation in quality - eg. outdated.
