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Psych Paper 2 > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Research

A

Finding and using evidence to support a theory
- systematic way of finding things out

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2
Q

Research Methods

A
  • Observations
  • Self reports
  • Content analysis
  • Correctional studies
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3
Q

Aim

A

Identifies the purpose of the investigation

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4
Q

Hypothesis

A

A precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of a study

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5
Q

Objectivity

A

Not a matter of opinion & free from bias

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6
Q

Reliability

A

If the results are consistent or not

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7
Q

Validity

A

If the results are accurate or not

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8
Q

Independant Variable

A

Variable that the researcher manipulates

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9
Q

Dependant Variable

A

Variable the researcher measures in their experiment

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10
Q

Operational

A

A full description of exactly how variables are defined, how they will be manipulated and how they will be measured

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11
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

States there’s no relationship or significant difference between the two variables being studied

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12
Q

Alternate/Experimental Hypothesis

A

States that the results aren’t down to chance, predicts the IV will have an effect on the DV

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13
Q

Sample

A

Smaller collection of units from a population used to determine truths about that population
5 TYPES

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14
Q

Target Population

A

The group of people who’s behaviour we’re interested in studying/measuring

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15
Q

Biased

A

Under/over representation of a characteristic within a sample

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16
Q

Generalisations

A

Applying results from sample back to target population

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17
Q

Representative

A

Able to accurately symbolise/reflect the target population

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18
Q

5 Types of Sampling

A

Random
Systematic
Stratified
Opportunity
Volunteer

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19
Q

Random Sampling

A

Get a list of target population and assign each a number.
- use a random generator to select number & then convert back into names
- all members have an equal chance of being selected

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20
Q

Systematic Sampling

A

Get complete list of target population & put them into a sampling frame.
- Choose nth term & select every nth person from frame

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21
Q

Stratified Sampling

A

Identify stratas and calculate the proportion of each strata in the target population
- Use random sampling to select a representative selection of participants

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22
Q

Opportunity Sampling

A

Asking whoever is ready & available at the time of study

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23
Q

Volunteer Sampling

A

PPs self-select themselves to become part of a study

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24
Q

Independent Groups

A

Half PPs are in Group A & other half are in Group B

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25
Q

Repeated Measures

A

100% PPs do Group A & then 100% do Group B

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26
Q

Matched Pairs

A

Half PPs are in Group A & other half are in Group B, but the PPs are matched accordingly to the characteristic/variable that could affect DV

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27
Q

Pilot Study

A

Trial run of a piece of research to check how it will work & allows researcher to reduce flaws

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28
Q

Lab Experiment

A

Conducted in highly controlled conditions (artificial)

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29
Q

Field Experiment

A

The IV is manipulated in a more natural setting

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30
Q

Extraneous Variables

A

Any other variables that would interfere with the IV or DV & should be controlled or removed
- 2 TYPES: Participants/Situational

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31
Q

Participant Variables

A

The differing individual characteristics that may impact the DV

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32
Q

Situational Variables

A

Any features of the experimental situation that may affect the DV

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33
Q

Confounding Variables

A

Extraneous variable type yet affects DV & IV, do change systematically with the IV

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34
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

Participants may alter their actions & responses to parts of the experiment in order ot fit the “desired” characteristics
- Can alter the results & they won’t be an accurate representation of the sample

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35
Q

Investigator Effects

A

Any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome.
- It also may refer to any actions of the researcher that were related to the study’s design

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36
Q

Randomisation

A

A way of dealing with EVs
- Use of chance wherever possible to reduce the researcher’s influence on the design of the investigation

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37
Q

Standardisation

A

A way of dealing with EVs
- All PPs should be subject to the same environment, information, and experience. To ensure this, all procedures are standardised

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38
Q

Natural Experiment

A

Study of a naturally occuring situation as it unfolds in the real world

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39
Q

Quasi Experiment

A

The naturally occurring IV is a difference between people that already exists, so examines its effect on the DV

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40
Q

Self-Report Technique

A

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours, and/or experiences

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41
Q

Questionnaire

A

A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences

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42
Q

Interview

A

A ‘live’ encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess the interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences

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43
Q

Closed Questions

A
  • Fixed number of responses
  • Collect quantitative data as they limit the possible answers
  • Easy to analyse but lacks detail & depth
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44
Q

Open Questions

A
  • Doesn’t have a fixed range of answers
  • Respondents are free to answer however they see fit
  • Open questions tend to produce qualitative data
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45
Q

Semi-Structured Interviews

A
  • Most likely to encounter in day-to-day
  • List of pre-determined questions but interviewers can ask follow up questions or interviewee can expand
  • Interviewer requires training
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46
Q

Mean

A

Add all numbers & divide by quantity of numbers

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47
Q

Median

A

Align in ascending order & pick out middle

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48
Q

Mode

A

Most common number

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49
Q

Range

A

Difference between lowest & highest number

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50
Q

Standard Deviation

A

How spread out the scores are from the average

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51
Q

Percentages

A

Figure out of a hundred

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52
Q

Correlation

A

Relationship/trend between variables (co-variables)

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53
Q

Dispersion

A

How spread out the data is
- Range/SD

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54
Q

Central Tendency

A

How close together the data is

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55
Q

Primary Data

A

First hand collection of data (collected only for purpose of research)

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56
Q

Secondary Data

A

Data collected for another purpose/research

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57
Q

Discrete Data

A

Clear, countable values between
- Discrete as units can’t be split up (decimals)

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58
Q

Nominal Data

A

Frequency/naming data, grouping people into different categories

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59
Q

Continuous Data

A

Ongoing sequence
- Measurable
- Has meaning at all points (can be decimals)

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60
Q

Ordinal Data

A

Order in measurement (ranking) that indicates some direction but doesnt show difference between interval data as the intervals aren’t uniform

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61
Q

Interval Data

A

Shows the order & exact difference/intervals between each variable & uses units of equal intervals

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62
Q

Line Graph

A

Shows change over time
- interval/continuous

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63
Q

Scattergraph

A

Shows a correlation
- Measures strength & direction of CVs

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64
Q

Types of Observations

A
  • Covert
  • Overt
  • Controlled
  • Naturalistic
  • Participant
  • Non-Participant
65
Q

Covert Observation

A

The researcher is undercover & participants are unaware that they’re being watched.
- No informed consent but a debriefing takes place afterwards
HAWTHORNE EFFECT

66
Q

Overt Observation

A

Participant is aware they’re being watched, meaning informed consent is gained

67
Q

Controlled Observation

A

Likely carried out in a lab & is typically structured.
Reseracher is fully in control & PPs are randomly allocated to each IV group

68
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Observing behaviour in the environment that it naturally occurs.
Typically involves observing spontaneous behaviours with the researcher recording what they see

69
Q

Participant Observation

A

Where the observer is a part of the observation group (can be covert or overt).
If overt: researcher reveals the true identity & asks permission
If covert: researcher uses a fake identity

70
Q

Non-Participant Observation

A

Researcher choses not to play a part in the observation & this may be chosen if there isn’t an opportunity to engage in a PP observation.
This may not be in person & can be done via recordings

71
Q

Hawthorne Effect

A

If unaware, they’re less likely to change their behaviour

72
Q

Types of Reliability

A

Test-Retest
Inter-Observer/Rater
Split-Half

73
Q

Case Study

A

An in-depth analysis of an individual/group/event.
- Typically collects qualitative data through observations or questionnaires
- Longitudinal

74
Q

Case Study Strengths

A
  • More info & understanding of individual, so can be more confident data is correct & accurate
  • Can contribute to understanding of both typical and untypical functioning
  • Can generate hypotheses for future studies
  • Efficient as it only takes 1 case study to disprove a theory
  • Allows reserachers to study events that they couldn’t practically or ethically manipulate
75
Q

Case Study Limitations

A
  • Issues with generalisation of findings
  • Subjectivity in terms of selection of material & interpretation by researcher
  • Issues withh validity of personal accounts from pp & their peers - possibly due to memory decay
  • Cannot establish cause & effect as they begin after the event
76
Q

Three Faces of Eve

A

THIGPEN & CLECKLEY (1954):
- Case of Dissociative Identity Disorder where Eve White mentioned several hallucinatory experiences to a therapist where she heard voices.
- As these experiences were being recalled, Eve’s behaviour changed and became flirtatious & boisterous, referring to herself as Eve Black compared to serious and conscientious Eve White.
- Eve was studied for 100 hours over the next 14 months, finding this extra personality ws present since childhood.
- Used psychological testing & scientific backing (EEGs) to determine personalities

77
Q

Ethical Issues

A

Arises when a conflict exists between the rights of a PP and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data

78
Q

BPS Code of Ethics

A

Quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and isnt acceptable when dealing with ppts.
Build around 4 major principles

79
Q

4 Major principles of BPS Code of Ethics

A
  • Respect
  • Competence
  • Responsibility
  • Integrity
80
Q

4 Main Ethical Considerations

A
  • Informed Consent
  • Deception
  • Protection from Harm
  • Privacy & Confidentiality
81
Q

Informed Consent

A

Make ppts fully aware of what the research involves (aims, rights, what their data will be used for) before they agree to be involved

82
Q

Deception

A

Cannot purposefully midlead or withhold information from the ppts

83
Q

Protection from Harm

A

Ppts should not be placed at any more risk of harm (psychological or physical) as they would be in everyday life

84
Q

Privacy & Confidentiality

A

Protecting ppts’s information in the research, keeping anonimity
DATA PROTECTION ACT - right to have any personal data protected

85
Q

Dealing with Informed Consent

A

Can gain consent through 3 different ways: Prior-general consent, retrospective consent, presumptive consent
- sign an agreement/consent form stating they’re aware of all information about the study

86
Q

Prior General Consent

A

Ppts give consent to take part in many different studies, but unaware of which one they are taking place in

87
Q

Retrospective Consent

A

Asking for consent after the study, or during the debrief

88
Q

Presumptive Consent

A

Ask a group of like-minded people & generalise the consent to ppts

89
Q

Dealing with Deception

A

Full briefing beforehand for full awareness of aims/methods/other ppts’s actions
- Give PPts the right to withdraw

90
Q

Right to withdraw

A

PPts should be allowed to withdraw from reserach at any stage.
- if they’re being paid, they should still be paid if they leave

91
Q

Dealing with Protection from Harm

A
  • Include a 3rd party observer
  • remind all ppts of their rights & everything about method
  • offered therapy & counselling
  • ensure ppts that their behaviour was typical and normal
92
Q

Dealing with Confidentiality

A

Use initials/letters/numbers rather that names, distorting audio recordings & bluring any faces.
- Data should be kept in password-protected files
- All PPts should be kept anonymous

93
Q

Content Analysis

A

Interpreting secondary material to understand individuals, where they’re studied indirectly.
- Aims to summarise and describe this communication in a systematic way so conclusions can be drawn

94
Q

Content Analysis Method

A
  1. Identify what they’re looking for
  2. Create categories
  3. Read through source material and tally each time the category occurs
  4. Quantitative data so it allows for comparisons (like bar charts, graphs, tables)
95
Q

Content Analysis Strengths

A
  • Enables the analysis of a wide range of material
  • Many communications are already in the public domain so allow for high ext validity and decreased ethical problems
96
Q

Content Analysis Limitations

A
  • Any findings are limited by the researchers expectations because categories are decided prior to the analysis
  • Although researchers are trained, their interpretations of material may still be subjective
  • Behaviour may be taken out of context and the researcher may attribute opinions or motivations to the source material
97
Q

Peer Review Process

A
  1. Scientist conducts a study
  2. Scientist write about results
  3. Journal editor recieves article & sends it out for peer review (may need revision & review to then be sent back)
  4. Peer reviewers read the article & provide feedback
  5. If article meets the standards, it is then published
98
Q

What makes psychology a science?

A

Follows a strict proess, the ‘golden standard’ framework of how reserach should be carried out. This is because the process provides an empirical standardised method for creating reserach, which increases the reliability & validity of findings.
Empirical/Objectivity/Hypothesis Testing/Replicability/Open to Fasification

99
Q

Empirical

A

Study observable behaviour or cary out experiments
- Doesn’t rely on belief, carried out with careful and detailed methods so it can be replicated

100
Q

Objectivity

A

All sources of bias are minimised and personal or subjective ideas are eliminated.
- Implies the facts speak for themselves even if different from hypotheses.
- All EVs need to be controlled to establish cause & effect

101
Q

Replicability

A

Whether a particular method & finding can be repeated with other people or occasions to see if they’re similar.
- If a dramatic discovery is reported, but cannot be replicated by other scientists, it won’t be accpeted.
- If we get the same results over & over again under some conditions, gives confidence that results are reliable & accurate

102
Q

Open to Falsification

A

Using scientific methods, means you’re able to prove the theory is incorrect

103
Q

The Scientific Process

A
  1. Make an observation
  2. Ask a question
  3. Form a Hypothesis that answers the question, either experimental, alternative, or null
  4. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis
  5. Do an experiment to test the prediction (aims, method, and results)
  6. Analyse the results: Whether hypothesis is correct or not (If incorrect, go back to step 3)
  7. Report the results
  8. Peer review
104
Q

Peer Review Strengths

A
  • Increases validity, more likely to say research is accurate. Provides feedback and validity upon expert knowledge. The process is understood & accepted by majority of reserachers
105
Q

Peer Review Limitations

A
  • Anonymity is not infallible; reviewers find it hard to remain purely objective due to their education & experiences. Reviewers are highly critical of research that contradicts their own views (myside bias) & vice versa. Anonymity may be used to criticise rival researchers. Lack of research funding means researchers may struggle & favour others.
  • Publication bias - editors want to publish significant ‘headline-grabbing’ findings & may prefer positive results. ‘file drawer effect’: where only statistically significant findings are published
  • Burying ground-breaking research as they want to keep things as normal & may want to suppress opposition to mainstream theories
106
Q

Test-Retest Reliability

A

Concerned with EXTERNAL reliability
- Ppts take the same test at different occasions, a high correlation between test scores indicating that the test has good external reliability.
- If the correlation coefficient is above (+0.80) it has good reliability.
- Spearman’s Rho

107
Q

Split Half Reliability

A

Concerned with INTERNAL reliability
- Compare the performance of 2 halves of a test/questionnaire, with a close correlation between scores on both halves of the test

108
Q

Inter-rater/observer/intra-rater Reliability

A

Inter-observer: Used to assess the degree to which different independent observers give consistent extimates of some phenomenon
Inter-rater: Same as inter-observer, but for a method other an observation (e.g. content analysis)
Intra-rater: Same reseracher is assessed for consistency of test/observation results (e.g. would they mark the same answer the same)

109
Q

2 Types of Reliability

A

Internal: Assesses the consistency of results across items within a test
External: Extent to which a measure varies from one use to another

110
Q

Ways of Improving Reliability - Questionnaires

A
  • Ask some standardised questions
  • Closed questions
  • Rewrite questions so they cant be interpreted differently
111
Q

Ways of Improving Reliability - Interviews

A
  • Same interviewer
  • Same training
  • Structured questions
112
Q

Ways of Improving Reliability - Experiments

A
  • Standardised & controlled lab experiment
  • Control EVs
113
Q

Ways of Improving Reliability - Observations

A
  • Multiple independent observers
  • Operationalise categories
  • Distinct categories
114
Q

Ways of Improving Reliability - Content Analysis

A
  • Operationalise categories
  • Distinct categories
115
Q

2 Types of Validity

A

Internal: Effects observed in a study are due to the changing of the IV & not other factors.
External: How much the results can be generalised to other settings (ecological, temporal, population)

116
Q

Threats to the 2 types of Validity

A

Internal: Researcher bias, EVs, Types of ecperiment, Confounding Variables, Demand Characteristics
External: Artifical Setting, Non-representative setting/sample, era-bound, culture-bound, low mundane realism

117
Q

Ways of improving the 2 types of Validity

A

Internal: Controlling EVs using standardisation, counterbalancing and eliminating DCs & investigator effects
External: Setting research in a more natural setting, and use random sampling to select ppts

118
Q

Face Validity

A

Examining the content of the test to see if it looks like it measures what it is supposed to measure

119
Q

Concurrent Validity

A

Involves comparing a new method or test with an already well-established test that claims to measure the same variable.
- A significant positive correlation should be gained between the results of the two tests

120
Q

Temporal Validity

A

How relevant the time period is in affecting the findings.

121
Q

Ecological Validity

A

Whether a test or method measures behaviour that is representative of naturally occurring behaviour

122
Q

Population Validity

A

Extent to which findings from a sample can be generalised to similar and wider populations

123
Q

Predictive Validity

A

Whether the test will predict future behaviour/performance indicated by its results

124
Q

Construct Validity

A

Degree that a psychological test measures the abstract concept or psychological construct that it seems to measure

125
Q

Ways of assessing validity

A
  • Lie Scale
  • Face Validity
  • Concurrent Validity (compare performance on established & new test)
  • Construct Validity (degree to which the theories have been represented)
126
Q

Ways of Improving Validity - Experiments

A
  • use a control group
  • standardised procedure
  • single & double blind procedures
127
Q

Ways of Improving Validity - Questionnaires

A
  • make qs easy to understand
  • lie scale to assess for social desirability bias
  • anonymity
128
Q

Ways of Improving Validity - Observations

A
  • covert & natural (more realistic results)
  • operationalised behavioural categories
129
Q

Ways of Improving Validity - Qualitative Methods

A
  • use different methods to compensate for limitations
    demonstrate interpretive validity (coherence/direct quotes)
130
Q

What is science?

A

Pursuit and application of knowledge & understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence

131
Q

Shared assumptions of the scientific approach

A
  • Must be definable & agreed upon subject matter or method (or paradigm)
  • There must be a theory construction from which hypotheses are derived and tested
  • Empirical methods of investigation are used to gather info
  • Science should attempt to discover gender laws & principles
  • Science must be open to being tested & thus falsified
132
Q

Paradigms

A

Collective set of assumptions about a subject & metyhod of enquiry
- Form the generally perspective of a particular subject at a point in time

133
Q

What did Kuhn (1970) believe

A

Believed that a subject can only be a science if the majority of its workers agree with and work within a common ‘global’ theory or paradigm. He described 3 stages of scientific development

134
Q

Kuhn’s 3 stages in the development of science

A
  1. pre-science (no paradigm)
  2. normal science (a paradigm is establiish & all researchers dedicate themselves to exploring it)
  3. revolution (a point is reached where so much evidence confluicts the paradigm that it is rejeced and is replaced by one which can accommodate the conflicting findings
135
Q

Paradigm shift

A

An important change in the basic concepts & experimental practices of a scientific discipline
- can sometimes be referred to as a ‘scientific revolution’

136
Q

Strengths of Psychology as a Science

A
  • research uses scientific methods
  • research is carried out through experimentation & uses many controls meaning cause and effect can be established
  • ppsychology has theories that can generate hypotheses
137
Q

Weakness of Psychology as a Science

A
  • psychologists study humans which can’t be studies in the same way as chemistry & physics where people are aware theyre being studies
  • even with hypotheses, lots of material is called psychology is not a science
138
Q

Normal Distribution

A
  • plotted in the form of a symmetrical bell shaped curve
  • median/mode/mean are all in the middle & are very close together
  • tails don’t reach zero
139
Q

Skewed Distributions

A

Some data sets produce skewed distributions (asummetrical patterns which appear to ‘lean’ to one side)
Positive/Right or Negative/Left

140
Q

Postive/Right Skewed Distributions

A

Most scores are low & on the left of the graph
- Leads to a long tail on the right
- mode is at the highest point, then median, then mean (left to right)

141
Q

Negative/Left Skewed Distributions

A

Most scores are high & on the right of the graph
- Leads to a long tail on the left
- mode is at the highest point, then median, then mean (right to left)

142
Q

Inferential Statistics Test

A

Allow us to draw conclusions about whether the results are significant or not

143
Q

Significance

A

Research findings are sufficiently strong enough that a researcher can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative
- usually use p≤0.05

144
Q

Steps to chose the right test

A
  1. Correlation or Difference (If correlation skip to 3)
  2. Experimental design - related/unrelated
  3. Level of measurement - nominal/ordinal/interval
  4. Parametric? (has to be interval)
145
Q

Importance of scientific report writing

A

It’s a chance for psychologists to show their case findinfs of important/ground-breaking research

146
Q

Scientific Report Sections

A

Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
Referencing

147
Q

Scientific Report - Abstract

A

Short summary of overall nature of your investigation (200-300 words)
- written after the research but placed at the start
- contains :aims, hypotheses, design, variables, pps & sampling, results

148
Q

Scientific Report - Intro

A

(600-700 words)
- Literature review (general to specific)
- Puts aims & hypotheses into context
- Key items are operationalised
- Finishing with specific aims/hypotheses

149
Q

Scientific Report - Method

A
  • Design
  • Sample
  • Apparatus/equiptment
  • Procedure
  • Ethics
150
Q

Scientific Report - Results

A

Use of differential/inferential stats
- indicate what’s happening rather than why
- level of significance
- calculated & critical levels
- significance or not
- justify use of stats test

151
Q

Scientific Report - Discussion

A
  • explanation of results
  • results are analysed in relation to studies in literary review
  • highlighting any weaknesses of the study & mentioning modifications to the study if it were to be conducted again
  • overall conclusion
152
Q

Scientific Report - Referencing

A
  • give recognition & credit for their work
  • so others have access to your references so readers can read the referencesd articles themselves
  • avoid plaigarism
153
Q

Book Reference Template

A

Author Surname & Initial, (date of publishing), Book Title [italics], Place of Publication, Publisher

154
Q

Journal Reference Template

A

Author Surname & Initial, (date of publishing), Title of Article, Title of Journal, Voilume number, Issue number, Start & End page numbers

155
Q

Stats Test mnemonic

A

Carrots / Should / Come
Mashed / With / Swede
Under / Roast / Potatoes

156
Q

Stats Test table

A

Unrelated / Related / Correlation
Nom: CHI-SQUARED / SIGN / CHI-SQUARED
Ord: MANN-WHITNEY / WILCOXON / SPEARMAN’S RHO
Int: UNRELATED T / RELATED T / PEARSON’S R

157
Q

Event Sampling

A

Observation of targeted behaviours or specific events, recording the number of times a certain behaviour occurs.

158
Q

Time Sampling

A

Where an observer records behaviour at prescribed interval

Psych Paper 2 (3 decks)

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