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Psych Paper 2 > Approaches into Psychology > Flashcards

Approaches into Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

Wundt’s Introspection

A

Where a ppt is given a stimulus, and is then trained to recall all their thoughts to do with this stimulus.
- Involves examination of one’s thoughts

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2
Q

What did Wundt do?

A

Separated psychology as a science from philosophy, physiology, and biology.
- Founded first psychology lab in Germany

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3
Q

Theory of Structuralism

A

Studying the structure of the mind through introspection or internal reflection

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4
Q

What are the main 5 Behaviourist Assumptions

A
  • Most behaviour is learnt directly (except innate reflexes)
  • Behaviour depends on its consequences
  • Animals and humans learn the same way
  • The mind is irrelevant
  • The key form of learning is Conditioning
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5
Q

Unconditioned

A

Regular act/response before conditioning (unlearnt)

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6
Q

Conditioned

A

A learnt act in response to a stimulus which isn’t regularly associated

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7
Q

Stimulus

A

Cause of a response/act, can be un/conditioned

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8
Q

Association

A

Correlating a stimulus to a response

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9
Q

Reinforcement

A

Something to increase the likelihood of an action/behaviour being repeated

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10
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

Receiving a reward to increase likelihood of an action/behaviour being repeated

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11
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

Acting to avoid something unpleasant to increase likelihood of repetition

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12
Q

Punishment

A

Unpleasant consequence of behaviour to reduce likelihood of repetition

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13
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Learning through reinforcement & consequences

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14
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Learning through association

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15
Q

Pavlov’s experiment

A

Studied salivation in dogs as an expectant response to being fed, through using a small tube in the dog’s cheek which measures the amount of saliva produced.
- NS (bell) -> No Response / UCS (food) -> UCR (saliva)
- NS + UCS -> UCR
- CS (bell) -> CR (saliva)

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16
Q

Strengths of Behaviourism

A
  • Uses controlled lab experiments (pavlov/skinner, scientific credibility)
  • Has real life application (understandings for treatments for phobias & addictions - token ecomomy)
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17
Q

Limitations of Behaviourism

A
  • Deterministic (very little free will as only env. shapes behaviour)
  • Reductionist (ignores other factors like hormones)
  • Nature/Nurture (ignores bio as it’s nurture)
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18
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

Believes behaviour is learnt from social environment through observation and imitation

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19
Q

Vicarious Reinforcement

A

The frequency of certain behaviors increases as a result of observing others rewarded for the same behaviors

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20
Q

Modelling

A

Individuals learn a particular behaviour through observing a model performing that behaviour

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21
Q

Imitation

A

Action of using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour

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22
Q

Identification

A

Form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude/behaviour in order to be associated with a particular group/person

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23
Q

Mediational Processes

A

The internal mental processes that exist between environmental stimuli and the response made by an individual to those stimuli

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24
Q

What are the 4 Mediational processes?

A

Attention
Retention
Motor Reproduction
Motivation

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25
Q

Attention

A

The extent to which we notice certain behaviours

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26
Q

Retention

A

How well the behaviour is remembered

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27
Q

Motor Reproduction

A

The ability of the observer to perform the behavior

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28
Q

Motivation

A

The will to perform the behaviour,which is based of whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

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29
Q

Strengths of SLT

A
  • Cause & Effect as it uses scientific methods
  • Real Life Application (contributed to understandings of aggression and gender development & formed basis for phobia treatments)
  • Explains a large number of behaviours & a range of processes
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30
Q

Limitations of SLT

A
  • Overrelies on evidence from lab studies that lack ext. validity
  • Punishments/rewards are subjective so may be individual differences
  • Lacks population validity as BOBO DOLL uses ppts from one location (stanford uni)
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31
Q

Cognitive Approach

A

Focuses on how internal mental processes affect behaviour

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32
Q

Schema

A

A cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret incoming information in the brain

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33
Q

Inference

A

Reaching a logical conclusion based on evidence and reasoning

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34
Q

Reasons Schemas aren’t useful

A
  • Contribute to negative stereotypes & make it difficult to retain new info that don’t fit preestablished ideas
  • Schemas develop in childhood & are usually resistant to change
  • If left unmanaged, they can cause negative patterns that are inforced by unhealthy interactions
  • Once a schema is developed, it can unconsciously influence your thoughts & actions
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35
Q

Reasons Schemas are useful

A
  • Help predict what will happen happen in the world based on our experiences
  • Enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly
  • Prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
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36
Q

Strengths of Cognitive Approach

A
  • The methods are highly controlled
  • The approach is used w/ cognitive neuroscience so it has practical and theoretical applications
  • Soft deterministic
  • Takes into account unobservable processes
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37
Q

Limitations of Cognitive Approach

A
  • Dependent on controlled experiments, so lacks ecological validity & mundane realism
  • Subjective as unobservable processes can only be inferred
  • Doesn’t consider genetics
  • Machine Reductionism: comparing humans to machines ignores emotional and motivational factors
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38
Q

Theoretical Models

A
  • Simplified representations of cognitive processes based on current research evidence
  • Often are incompltete & are frequently changed, updated, and refined
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39
Q

Computer Models

A
  • The process of using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition
  • Development of computers and computer programming led to interpret the way sensory information is coded as it passes through the system
  • information is inputted through senses, encoded into memory & then combined with previous information to complete a task
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40
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience

A

An area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural basis of cognitive functions

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41
Q

What do Cognitive Neuroscientists do?

A

They are able to study the brain and collct detailed information about the brain structures involved in different kinds of mental processing

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42
Q

Phenotype

A

Characteristics that form a group

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43
Q

Genotype

A

A set of genes that form a group

44
Q

Hormone

A

Chemical transmitters that play a role separate from the CNS

45
Q

CNS

A

Part of the nervous system that consists of the brain & spinal cord

46
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

A signalling mollecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a synapse

47
Q

Evolution

A

The change in heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations

48
Q

Concordance Rates

A

Extent to which both members of a pair have a particular attribute

49
Q

Mz

A

One fertilised egg that splits - identical twins

50
Q

Dz

A

Two eggs that are fetilised separately - non-identical twins

51
Q

What are the main assumptions of the biological approach?

A
  • All behaviour has a biological root
  • Twin studies can be used to determine whether particular behaviours have a genetic basis
52
Q

Twin Studies

A

Involve comparison between sets of identical twins (Mz) & sets of non-identical twins (Dz) to give an indication of how much a specific behaviour may be genetic and/or environmental

53
Q

Theory of Evolution

A

Proposed by Darwin which states that any genetically determined trait that enhances survival & reproduction will contrinure in future generations and any characteristics that are not suited to a species’ environment will die out as it struggles to survive

54
Q

Strengths of Biological Approach

A
  • Uses scientific methods that gather data without researcher bias, and are more likely to be valid
  • Has real life application as it increases the understanding of biochemical processes in the brain to develop successful treatments (e.g. psychoactive drugs for depression)
55
Q

Limitations of Biological Approach

A
  • The approach claims to have discovered causes when there’s only an association, no cause & effect
  • Deterministics as it argues all behaviour is shaped by biology but doesn’t consider free will
  • Can’t separate nature/nurture as it overlooks confounding variables of sharing the same environment
56
Q

What are the 4 Main assumptions of the Psychodynamic Approach?

A
  • The conscious mind is only a very small part of what influences our behaviour
  • Behaviour and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious motives
  • The preconscious contains throughts and feeling that a person is not currently aware of, but which can easily be brought to consciousness
  • All behaviour has a cause (usually unconscious) and is determined
57
Q

Conscious

A

What we’re actually aware of

58
Q

Preconscious

A

Awawreness - dreams & parapraxes (e.g. Freudian slip)

59
Q

Unconscious

A

Unaware of but influences behaviour and personality, consists of biological urges & repressed memories

60
Q

What are the 3 components of the Psyche

A
  • Id
  • Ego
  • Superego
61
Q

Id

A
  • Works on the Pleasure Principle, and the idea that every wishful impulse should be immediately satisfied
  • Present from birth
  • “Selfish”
62
Q

Ego

A
  • Works on the Reality Principle, and thus mediates between the unrealistic id & external real world
  • Develops around age 2
  • Works out realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society
  • Mainly unconscious
63
Q

Superego

A
  • Works on the Morality Principle, and the ides of right and wrong
  • Develops around age 5
  • Controls the id’s impulses, especially those forbid by society
  • Persuades the ego to turn to moralistic goals
64
Q

Defence Mechanisms

A
  • Employed by the ego to deal with conflict/stress/anxiety
  • Operate at an unconscious level & are involuntary
  • If used too frequently, it can lead to mental illness
65
Q

Repression

A

Unconcscious mechanism to keep disturbing/threatening thoughts from becoming conscious as they would otherwise result in feelings of guilt

66
Q

Displacement

A

Redirection of an (often aggressive) impulse onto a powerless subject

67
Q

Denial

A

Blocking out external events from awareness. When overwhelmed, they refuse to experience it or accept reality

68
Q

What are the 5 Psychosexual Stages & when do they occur?

A

Oral - 0-1years
Anal - 1-3years
Phallic - 3-5years
Latency - 5years-puberty
Genital - Puberty

69
Q

What happens in the Oral Stage?

A

Sucking, swallowing, sees the mother’s breast as an object of desire

70
Q

Consequence of a fixation in the Oral Stage

A

Smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical

71
Q

What happens in the Anal Stage?

A

Requires ‘potty training’, withholding & expelling faeces

72
Q

Consequence of a fixation in the Anal Stage

A

Anally Retentive - perfection, obsessive
Anally Expulsive - messy, thoughtless

73
Q

What happens in the Phallic Stage?

A

Genital area, Oedipus & Electra Complex

74
Q

Consequence of a fixation in the Phallic Stage

A

Phallic Personality - Narcissistic, reckless, possible homosexual (if male)

75
Q

What happens in the Latency Stage?

A

Earlier conflicts are repressed - no conflict

76
Q

Consequence of a fixation in the Latency Stage

A

Has no consequence as there’s no conflict

77
Q

What happens in the Genital Stage?

A

Sexual desires become conscious alongside puberty

78
Q

Consequence of a fixation in the Genital Stage

A

Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

79
Q

Oedipus Complex

A
  • The boy develops sexual desire for his mother
  • The boy recognises the father as a powerful rival & fears he will castrate him
  • To resolve anxiety, the boy gives up his love for his mother & identifies with his father, internalising both his male identity & father’s superego
80
Q

What happens if the Oedipus/Electra Complexes are left unresolved?

A

The child will be confused about their gender identity

81
Q

Electra Complex

A
  • The girl becomes unconsciously aware that she doesn’t have a penis & believes she’s been castrated
  • The girl blames her mother & sees herself and her mother as powerless
  • The girl sexually desires a penis & therefore desires her father due to penis envy
  • The girl fears losing the love of her mother & converts the penis envy into desire for a baby, identifying with her mother & internalising the female identity and mother’s superego
82
Q

Why did Freud state that the identification with the mother isn’t as strong as boys with their father?

A

Freud believed that the girl’s fear of their mother isn’t as strong as the boy’s fear for her father, so therefore the identification with the mother isn’t as strong.

83
Q

Little Hans

A
  • At age 5, Hans developed a fear of horses and feared they may bite him - specifically white horses wearing blinkers
  • Freud interpreted this as the horse symbolising Hans’ father as Little Hans was going through the Oedipus Complex
  • As Hans’ father was pale and wore glasses, he almost looked like these horses
  • When Hans’ father talked to him, Hans overcame his fear
84
Q

Strengths of the Psychodynamic Approach

A
  • Has high explanatory power as it’s used to explain a wide range of occurrences (e.g. gender development & abnormal behaviour)
85
Q

Limitations of the Psychodynamic Approach

A
  • The case study method can’t make universal claims based on one ppt & can’t generalise
  • Subkective as it is based on opinion and lacks scientific backing
  • Unfalisifiable as it can’t be empirically tested, and can never be sure if it’s right or wrong
  • Psychic Deterministic as it ignores free will which is important as it is necessary to believe you have a choice
86
Q

What are the main assumptions of the Humanist Approach?

A
  • Every person has their own unique way of perceiving & understanding the world
  • Claims humans are self-determining & have free will
  • Biology & environment do have an effect but individual shave control
  • Holistic, so studies the whole person
87
Q

Maslow

A
  • Created a hierarachy of needs
  • Said people are motivated to achieve certain needs & if a need isn’t met, we will be motiated to meet it
  • The purpose of learning is an innate drive to reach our full potention, or SELF-ACTUALISE
88
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A
  1. Self-actualisation
  2. Esteem
  3. Social: Belonging & Love
  4. Safety
  5. Physiological
89
Q

Self-Actualisation Level

A

Reaching your full potential (Growth Need)

90
Q

Esteem Level

A

The self-worth, having a high view of yourself (Deficiency Need)

91
Q

Social Level

A

Feeling belonging & love, friendships & relationships are satisfied and wanting them (Deficiency Need)

92
Q

Safety Level

A

Feeling secure and safe (Deficieny Need)

93
Q

Physiological Level

A

Basic needs for survival, e.g. thirst & hunger (Deficiency Need)

94
Q

Rogers’ Main Assumptions

A
  • For a person to fully develop/grow, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness, acceptance (unconditional positive regard), and empathy
  • Whether a person reaches self-actualisation or not is dependent on the gap between the way the individual sees themselves (self-image) and the person they want to be (ideal self)
  • If their self-image & ideal self are similar then congruence is achieved & self-actualisation is possible
  • If their self-image & ideal self aren’t similar, then incongruence occurs & self-actualisation is not possible due to low self-esteem
95
Q

Self-Image

A

The way someone views themself

96
Q

Idea Self

A

The type of person someone wants to be

97
Q

Self-esteem/worth

A

Someone’s opinion of themself

98
Q

Conditions of worth (Conditional Positive Regard)

A

Loving someone if they act the way you want them to only

99
Q

Unconditional Positive Regard

A

Loving someone no matter what, for who they are and not their actions

100
Q

Congruence

A

The self-image & ideal seld are similar & allows for self-actualisation

101
Q

Incongruence

A

The self-image & ideal seld are different & leads to low self-esteem

102
Q

Client Centred Therapy (CCT)

A

Addressing childhood roots through counselling to help reach self-actualisation

103
Q

Strengths of the Humanist Approach

A
  • Both Rogers & Maslow have real life application (Rogers - CCT has changed counselling techniques for the better as it looks at how ppts see themselves; Maslow - Students need to feel emotionally & physically safe and accepted within a classroom to progress and reach their full potential)
  • It is a positive approach as it promotes a positive image of the human condition unlike other negative approaches, so must be able to help people feel better
104
Q

Limitations of the Humanist Approach

A
  • The concepts are untestable as self-actualisation cannot be measured empirically so we can’t be sure of the reliability & thus validity of the concepty & explanation as a whole
  • Focuses on Western cultures so it ignores all Collectivist cultures, making it culturally bound so it cannot be generalised
  • The real life application is limitated as it lacks a sound evidence base (Maslow attempted to formulate the characteristics of self-actualised individuals by looking at biographies but was biased by the researcher and the sample was androcentric)
105
Q

Sequential Processing

A

The idea that humans process a single piece of information at a time

106
Q

Limited Capacity Processing

A

Individuals selectively attends to only a small portion of the stimulation available, while the vast majority of information remains in the background

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