Research methods Flashcards
experimental method
lab field
quasi natural
aim
what the researcher intends to find out in a study
hypothesis
predicting results
directional hypothesis
difference between two conditions or two groups of people
one tailed - one direction
non-direction hypothesis
same but two tailed - both directions
variables
condition in an experiment or a characteristic of a person that can take on different categories
independent variable
the thing you change
dependent variable
the thing you measure
operationalisation
variable that is changed by experimenter
null hypothesis
statement of no difference or no relationship
extraneous variable
any variable you’re not investigating that could affect the outcomes of your research study
confounding variables
variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables
investigator effects
when a researcher unintentionally influences the outcome of any research they are conducting
randomisation
way of controlling for the effects of extraneous/confounding variables
standardisation
process in which procedures used in research are kept the same
counterbalancing
ppt sample is divided in half, one half completing the two conditions in one order, other half completing conditions in reverse order
random allocation
researchers divide the pots + allocate them to certain groups using a random method
Experimental design
decrees the way ppts are allocated to experimental groups of an investigation
independent groups design
two groups are exposed to different experimental conditions
repeated measures
same pets participate in each independent variable condition
match pairs design
involves two groups –> each member of Ione group is paired with a similar person in the other group
participant
someone who puts in an investigation
laboratory experiment
conducted under controlled conditions where research manipulates the IV to measure the effect on the DV
field experiment
study conducted outside the lab in a ‘real world’ setting
natural experiment
observational studies ( not true)
Researcher has no control over the social conditions of the experiment
quasi experiment
puts cant be randomly assigned to the IV
random sample
individuals randomly selected by researchers to represent an entire group as a whole
systematic sample
sampling technique that uses a predetermined system to select the pets from a target group
stratified sample
researchers divide subjects into subgroups called strata based on characteristics that they share
(e.g race)
opportunity sample
sampling technique used to select ppts from a target group to take part in a research study
volunteer sample
ppts self select to become part of a study
pilot study
small versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness + make improvements
Single blind study
ppts in the clinical trial dont know if they are receiving the placebo or real treatment
double blind study
both ppts and experimenters dont know who is receiving a particular treatment
ethical issues
rights of ppt and researchers needs
BPS code of ethics
focuses on respect, competence, responsibility and integrity
Population
entire set of possible observations that may be made on the statistical universe
target population
population a study is intended to research and to which generalizations from samples are to be made
sample
subset of individuals from a larger population
sampling techniques
process of selecting a specified number of observations from a larger population
generalisation
respond in the same way to different bur similar stimuli
observation
close examination of an object for the purpose of collecting data about it
naturalistic observation
researcher observes + records behaviour as it naturally occurs without intervention
controlled observation
researchers watch ppts in a contained environment such as a lab
covert observation
researcher is ‘undercover’ –> ppts are unaware they are being observed
overt observation
people know they are being observed —> know the aims of the research
ppt observation
researcher studies a group through observation + participating in its activities
non participant observation
observing ppts without actively participating
State all ethical issues
Informed consent
consent
harm
anonymous
right to withdraw
deception
retrospective consent
ppts give their consent during debrief
control group
used for the purposes of comparison to determine whether the IV affected the DV
ethics is a balance between what
researchers needs and ppts rights
Mnemonic fir ethical guidelines
can do + cant do with ppts
presumptive consent
group of people are asked if the study is acceptable rather than getting consent from ppts themselves
Prior general consent
ppts give permission to take part in different studies, including deception
lab experiments advantages
- increases control + accurate measurement of variables so more objectivity
- manipulation of the independent variable indicates cause and effect
- lab standardisation means greater ability to repeat study
lab experiments disadvantages
- total control over variables not possible
- artificial lab conditions may produce unnatural behaviour that lacks ecological validity ( results dont generalise to real life)
- results may be biased by sampling, demand characteristics
field advantages
- greater ecological validity as behaviour occurs in its own natural environment
- less bias from sampling ( ppts dont have to be in a lab) and demand characteristics ( if ppts are unaware of being tested)
field disadvantages
- difficult to replicate
- ethical problems of deception, consent, invasion of privacy
- more bias from extraneous variable due to difficulty of controlling all aspects of experiment outside lab
natural experiments advantages
- allows pyschologists to study real problems (e.g. effects of a disaster on health)
- has great ecological validity since a natural change occurs in a natural environment
- allows research where IV cannot be manipulated for practical/ethical reasons
(e.g study of real-life issues such as natural disaster on stress levels)
natural experiments disadvantages
- cant demonstrate causal relationships because IV is not directly manipulated
- random allocation not possible, therefore may be confounding variables that can’t be controlled, a threat to external validity
Quasi experiments advantages
- allows for comparison between types of people
- they are often carries out under controlled conditions, therefore share the same strengths of a lab experiment
Quasi experiments disadvantages
- cant randomly allocate ppts to conditions, therefore there may be confounding variables
- ppts may be aware of being studied, therefore reducing internal validity
Experimental design
how ppts are allocated to the different conditions in an experiment
3 experimental designs
independent groups
repeated measures
matched pairs
counterbalancing
attempt to control order effects in a repeated measures design
event sampling
counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual/group.
(e.g. event sampling of dissent at a football match would mean counting the no of times players disagree with the referee)
time sampling
recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame
(e.g. football match only interested in one player so we make notes on what our target individual does every 30 seconds )
advantages of event sampling
useful when target behaviour or event happens infrequently and could be missed by time sampling
disadvantages of event sampling
if event is too complex, observer may overlook important details
Advantages of time sampling
effective in reducing the no of observations that have to be made
disadvantages of time sampling
instances when behaviour its sampled might be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole
why can’t continuous recording always be used ?
not practical for complex behaviours
Questionnaire
pre-set list of questions
open question
open response - how did u feel at Thorpe park
closed question
fixed response - how old are you
social desirability bias
respondents give answers to questions that they believe will make them look good to others, concealing their true opinions or experiences.
acquiescence bias
survey respondents to agree with research statements, without the action being a true reflection of their own position or the question itself
structured interview
pre-determined questions
fixed order
unstructured interview
free-flow interview
general topic
likert scale
rating scale used to measure opinions, attitudes, or behaviours
(Strongly Agree, Agree, No opinion, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree)
rating scale
assess and evaluate the performance, behavior, skills,
fixed-choice option
respondent has to make a fixed-choice answer, usually ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
leading question
questions that are worded to suggest a particular answer.
3 types of observations
naturalistic + controlled
covert + overt
ppt + non ppt
features of science
- paradigms + paradigm shifts
- theory construction + hypothesis testing
- Falsifiability
- Replicability
- Objectivity + Empirical method
paradigms
Core beliefs (e.g. gravity)
paradigm shifts
big change in the scientific world
theory construction
creating hypothesis in order to test a theory
independent groups
ppts are placed in separate groups
each group does one level of the IV
Repeated measures
all ppts receive all levels of the IV
matched pairs
involves two different groups of ppts
ppts in group a are paired with ppts in group b -> paired on key characteristics
limitations for independent groups
- researcher cant control effects of ppt variables (e.g. group a might have better memory than group b)
- requires more ppts in order to end up with the same amount of data
Limitations of repeated measures
- order of conditions may accept the performance (order effect)
(e.g. ppts may do better the second time because they feel less anxious or worse because their bored)
limitations of matched pairs
- time consuming + difficult to match ppts on key variables. researcher has to start with a large group of ppts to ensure they can obtain matched pairs on key variables
- not possible to control all ppt variables as you can only match on variables known to be relevant.
strengths of independent groups
- order effects are not a problem
- reduces the chance of ppts guessing the purpose of the experiment
strengths of repeated measures
- ppt variables are controlled so higher validity
- fewer ppts are needed so less time spent recruiting them
strengths of matched pairs
- ppts only take part in a single condition so order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem
- controls confounding variables
