Research Methods Flashcards
Explain what a lab experiment is and its strengths and weaknesses
- Laboratory experiment – researcher manipulates an **independent variable and measures a dependent variable in a carefully controlled environment to understand cause + effect**
Strengths:
* An experimental method allows for** greater control over possible ‘confounding variables’** = highly reliable (Theoretical)
* The researcher** does not have to wait for the events to occur naturally** but can produce the situation they wish to study in the laboratory(Practical)
* High reliability because the method is easy to repeat and retest (Theoretical)
Weaknesses:
* Results of research in the laboratory may not what actually happens in real life. Also the researched may be aware that they are part of an experiment and so may not act naturally = low validity (Theoretical)
* There are often very real ethical problems associated with this technique - deception (Ethical)
Often the subject matter of sociology does not lend itself to study in the laboratory and so the technique is of no use. I.e. you can not study the consequences of divorce in the laboratory (Practical)
Explain what a field experiment is and what its strengths and weaknesses are
- Field experiment – researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable in the natural environment
Strengths:
* More validity than lab experiments. This is because the experiment is done in the real world and so in this sense is not ‘false’(Theoretical)
* The behaviour should be** more natural, as the researched do not know they are being researched** (Practical)
Weaknesses:
* Researcher has less control over the variables in the field. This could affect results - low reliability. (Practical)
* There are ethical problems because it is usually not possible to gain informed consent or to de brief pps.(Ethical)
Explain what structured interviews are and what its strengths and weakness are
- Structured interview involves a** list of predetermined questions** about a carefully-selected topic
- The person asking the **questions (“the interviewer”) **is allowed to **explain things the interviewee **
Strengths:
* It can be used as a powerful form of formative assessment; can explore how a respondent feels about a particular topic before using a second method to gather a greater depth of information
* All respondents are asked the same questions in the same way. This makes it easy to repeat (“replicate”) the interview - **easy to standardise + highly reliable (Theoretical)
* Quantative data allows for analysis of trends + patterns (Practical)
* The researcher is able to contact large numbers of people quickly, easily and efficiently (Practical**)
Weaknesses:
* Can be time consuming if sample group is very large (researcher needs to be present )
* **Validity and usefulness of the information is highly dependent upon the quality of the questions asked. The interviewer cannot add or subtract questions
* A substantial amount of pre-planning is required (Practical)
* Format of questionnaire design makes it
difficult for the researcher to examine complex issues and opinions. Even where open-ended questions are used, the depth of answers the respondent can provide tend to be more-limited = low validity (Theoretical**)
Explain what unstructured interviews are and what its strengths and weaknesses are
- Unstructured interviews have no pre-set questions - **general areas **to talk about which loosely direct the interview
Strengths:
* Rapport is built up because the respondent has trust and confidence in the interviewer = **high validity + good technique for sensitive areas e.g. domestic violence - Dobash & Dobash built up rapport as they spent a great deal of time in the refuges and became ‘permanent fixtures’ in the women’s lives (Theoretical)
* Findings are qualitative and in depth. Dobash & Dobash interviews were detailed and lasted for up to 12 hours. It is possible to get close to people’s actual experiences + increased verstehen = increases validity **
* No premature closure - the interviewer does not pre-define the findings, and therefore validity is increased
* Flexibility, interviewer can follow up interesting avenues of discussion
Weaknesses:
* Sample size tends to be small due to the detailed and time consuming nature of this technique. Dobash & Dobash only carried out 109 interviews =** low reliability generalisability, representativity + quantifiablity **
* Not a systematic method. With no preset questions and relying on the skills of the interviewer = low reliability **
* Lacks objectivity. The interviewers presence and the way questions are asked may affect results. The interviewer may even offer their own opinions which may bias the results. The interviewer may be too close to the subject and alter their findings without realising = low reliability
* Time consuming (Practical**)
Explain what semi-structured interviews are and what its strengths and weakneses are
- **Semi-structured interviews **use open-ended questions, some suggested by the researcher and some arise naturally during the interview
Strengths:
* Positive rapport between interviewer and interviewee. **Very simple, efficient and practical **way of getting data about things that **can’t be easily observed **
* **High Validity **- participants can talk about something in detail and depth. The meanings behind an action may be revealed as the interviewee is able to speak for themselves with little direction from interviewer
* Pre-Judgement: Few “pre-set questions”involved, the interviewer is not “pre-judging” what is and is not important information
Weaknesses:
** Depends on the skill of the interviewer (the ability to think of questions during the interview, and articulacy of respondent)
* Interviewer may give out unconscious signals/cues that guide respondent to give answers expected by interviewer
* Time Consuming + expensive
* Not very reliable - difficult to exactly repeat. Respondents may be asked different questions (non-standardised)
* Samples tend to be small
* Depth of qualitative information may be difficult to analyse (deciding what is and is not relevant**)
Explain what Covert Participant Observation is and what its strengths and weaknesses are
- **Covert Participant Observation is when the researcher’s identity is secret **and they participate in group activities that their researching
Strengths:
* Rapport is built up with the people being studied ** = increases validity ** e.g In McIntyre’s journalistic research he had a **Chelsea tattoo and drove hooligans to matches **to build up trust between himself and the other hooligans (Theoretical)
* Verstehen = increased validity ** e.g McIntyre saw through the eyes of the hooligans - understanding some of the complex reasons and emotions that drove football hooligan actions. (Theoretical)
* CPO is excellent for gaining information on sensitive areas of study, e.g. crime. McIntyre gained insights from his investigation into football hooligans e.g. the hardened violence and racist beliefs of the hooligans (Practical)
* CPO eliminates the Hawthorne effect - high validity (Theoretical**)
Weaknesses:
* There are problems with getting accepted in to the group being studied e.g. McIntyre had to hang around bars and have a large knowledge of the Chelsea football team history to be accepted by the headhunters (Practical)
* Can be expensive and time consuming. McIntyre’s research would have cost the BBC thousands of pounds and it took him 12 months to complete (Practical)
* Ethical concerns; there’s no informed consent, researcher uses deception & exploitation
* For some areas of investigation (e.g. crime) the** researcher runs the risk of being harmed if uncovered**
* There is the danger of ‘going native’ for the researcher (Practical)
Explain what Overt Participant Observation is and what its strengths and weaknesses are
Overt Participant Observation is when the researcher is visible and they participate in group activities that their researching
Strengths:
* The researcher does not have to worry about the consequences of being discovered. The Moonies were fully aware that Barker was a sociologist and studying their religious group (Practical)
* The researcher can avoid taking part in the group’s activities. Barker did not have to become a Moonie. (Practical)
* Ethical problems are greatly reduced, as there is no deception. Barker gained informed consent from the leaders of the Moonies (Ethical)
* It is much easier to record OPO it can be done in front of the participants since they know the researcher’s identity (Practical)
Weaknesses:
* Demand characteristics (Hawthorne effect) may occur. Subjects are likely to change their behaviour. e.g In Barker’s study the Moonies often discussed problems they had with the organization which would not of happened if she had not been a researcher =** low validity** (Theoretical)
* The group may not accept the researcher. Barker went through three complex stages of observation so she would be accepted (Practical)
Explain what Covert Non-Participant Observation is and what its strengths and weaknesses are
- **Covert Non-Participant Observation is when the researcher’s identity is secret ** and the researcher doesn’t participate in group activities
Strengths:
* Demand characteristics (Hawthorn effect) are unlikely to occur as the subjects don’t know they are being studied = increased validity ** e.g In Humphreys’ **study the subjects thought that he was **part of the activity in his role of voyeur. (Theoretical)
* Easier to record than CPO. The researcher can concentrate on recording data rather than trying to maintain an active role (Practical)
* The ease of recording makes CNPO more reliable. (Theoretical**)
Weaknesses:
* There are** major ethical concerns with CNPO as deception is involved** + risk of danger when studying deviance e.g Humphreys was clearly exposing himself to a dangerous situation when studying homosexual activity in public toilets with complete strangers (Ethical)
* This research method relies very much on the skill of the researcher. e.g Humphreys had to have** knowledge of the situation** when this understanding was achieved could he fit in to the situation he chose to study (Practical)
Explain what Overt Non-Participant Observation is and what its strengths and weaknesses are
- Overt Non-Participant Observation is when the researcher is visible and the researcher doesn’t participate in group activities
Strengths:
* More reliable than other types of observation e.g. Hargreaves’ study was open and so the recording was more precise, making use of an observation schedule (Theoretical)
* Can avoid activities that may change the behaviour of the subjects, reducing bias =** increased validity e.g. Hargreaves did not interact with the class at all during the observation - he did not change the dynamics of the class (Theoretical)
* More ethical, as the subjects are fully aware that they are being observed e.g. Hargreaves sat at the front of the class and was introduced to both the teachers and the students as a researcher (Ethical**)
Weaknesses:
* Low validity as pps are aware they are being studied e.g. the **teacher knowing they were being observed would certainly modify their behaviour (Theoretical**)
* No rapport is built up with the subjects = **low validity (Theoretical)
Explain what public documnets are and what its strengths and weaknesses are
- Documents are secondary sources of data and can be either **personal or public and contemporary or historical **
Strengths:
* Often these kinds of sources are the only way to research a particular area for example what was going in a particular society in the past; using history books to investigate the holocaust (Practical)
* Journals, pictures and the media are often an effective and efficient source of information studying new crime trends from sociology review (Practical)
* It’s objective about an event by using a number of sources about that event and trying to find the common information (Theoretical)
* Highly valid information; documents were written at the people time with no ulterior motives, so one may get close to people’s actual experiences (Theoretical)
* Qualitative data can be examined systematically to identify patterns by using content analysis (Theoretical)
* Documents are usually cheap and easily accessible to the researcher because **no time is wasted in primary (Practical)
* It is possible to use a wide range of personal documents from a variety of different sources making it easy to make comparisons (Practical**)
Weaknesses:
* Sources can be biased and prejudiced and so they lack the objectivity the sociologist strives for. They can be one-sided, political and ideological (Theoretical)
* These kinds of** documents can bring problems of interpretation** e.g Historical documents the problems of interpretation are intensified as the sources of **information are from different time periods (Practical)
* Findings from sources depend on the interpretation skills of the researcher. May not be similar documents available to check the reliability and representativeness of the document **(Theoretical)
* Personal documents are very subjective and so it is difficult to generalise from them (Theoretical)
* Very difficult to check for any bias in the documents (Practical)
* Is informed consent given if the author is still alive? If the person is deceased there is a danger of exploitation (Practical)
Explain what questionnaires are and what its strengths and weaknesses are
- A questionnaire is a list of** written questionsthat can be completed by post** or in person through a structured interview format. They can be closed-ended and open-ended
Strengths:
* The researcher is able to contact large numbers of people quickly, easily and efficiently using a postal questionnaire
* Questionnaires are relatively quick and easy to create, code and interpret (especially if closed questions are used). The respondent - not the researcher - does the** time-consuming part
of completing the questionnaire**
* Easy to standardise. Every respondent is asked the same question in the same way = highly reliable **
* Questionnaires can be used to explore potentially embarrassing areas** (such as sexual and criminal matters) more easily ** - can be anonymous and completed in privacy**. This
increases the chances of people answering questions honestly because they are not intimidated by the presence of a researcher
Weaknesses:
* The format of questionnaire design makes it difficult for the researcher to examine complex issues and opinions
* Even where open-ended questions are used, the depth of answers that the respondent can provide tend to be more-limited = **low validity **
* With a postal questionnaire, the researcher can never be certain the person to whom the questionnaire is sent actually fills it in
* Where the researcher is not present, it’s always difficult to know whether or not a respondent has understood a question properly
* The response rate tends to be very low for postal questionnaires
Explain what Random sampling is and what its strengths and weaknesses are
Random: When every person in a target population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample
Strengths:
* Quick and easy to carry out
* Ensures people all have an equal chance of being chosen - representative + genrealisable
Weaknesses:
* Requires an accurate, up to date and complete sampling frame
* Can be unrepresentative E.g. by chance the sample could be made of all females
Explain what Quota sampling is and what its strengths and weaknesses are
- Quota: Before the research is carried out the researcher is told how many respondents of a particular type are required e.g ten married females between the ages of 20 and 30. Once **one quota is filled no more results will be gathered from this **
Strengths:
* Allows researcher to control the variables without having a sample frame
* Quick and cheap method. For example if someone refuses to answer questions, simply ask someone else with same characteristics
Weaknesses:
* Not random as** each person in the population does not have the same chance of being asked**
* Researcher may have to ask a few personal questions to ascertain whether the respondent matches the criteria. This may put people off participating
Explain what Stratified sampling is and what its strengths and weaknesses are
Stratified: Split the sample down into groups and select randomly from these groups. The** groups that the researcher is choosing from must be the same proportion as in the target population** studied, to protect representativeness
Strengths:
* Effective as it allows the researcher to control the variables that are important to the research
* It can also increase precision and is therefore likely to improve representativeness
Weaknesses:
* It is **complex and time consuming to identify strata **and sample various sub groups of the target population
* It is not practical as the sampling frame does not contain the information required to split the population into the groups
Explain what Snowball sampling is and what its strengths and weaknesses are
- Snowball: Involves using personal contacts to build up a sample group. ‘Friend telling friend’
Strengths:
* No sampling frame is needed
* Can allow access to sensitive and secretive groups e.g. Drug users
Weaknesses:
* Clearly** not representative** as people who are included are part of a** network of contacts**
* May run out of participants making it difficult to generalise
