Research methods

Question 1

What is the difference between a directional hypothesis and a non-directional hypothesis?

Answer 1

In a directional hypothesis the researcher clearly states the difference that is anticipated between two conditions while a non-directional hypothesis states that there is a difference but doesn’t specify.

Question 2

What kinds of words are used in a directional hypothesis?

Answer 2

Less or more, higher or lesser, faster or slower

Question 3

How would you operationalise a hypothesis?

Answer 3

Clearly define variables in terms of how they can be measured. eg. After drinking 300ml of coke, the group will be able to say more words in the 5 minute time period than the group who drinks 300ml of water.

Question 4

What are independent variables and dependent variables?

Answer 4

IV: The variable that changes
DV: The variable that is measured

Question 5

What are extraneous variables and confounding variables?

Answer 5

EV: Any variable other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable if not controlled
Confounding variable: A variable that can’t be predicted or controlled eg the weather

Question 6

What is it called when a participant may be aware of the purpose of the study and therefore alter their behaviours and attitudes?

Answer 6

Demand characteristics

Question 7

Give a reason why repeated measures may not work for certain experiments?

Answer 7

The ppts may develop demand characteristics, altering the results of the experiment

Question 8

Give a positive of the repeated measures experimental design

Answer 8

It gives two sets of results using the same sample, meaning that it guarantees a comparison

Question 9

What’s the difference between experimental types and experimental design?

Answer 9

experimental types: lab experiments, field, quasi etc
Experimental design: repeated measures, independent groups, matched pairs

Question 10

Give a weakness of using matched pairs

Answer 10

There may still be important differences between partners, affecting the DV - decreased reliability

Question 11

What type of experimental design is suitable for this experiment?
Depressed patients assigned to receive either cognitive therapy or behaviour therapy for a 12-week period. A standardised test for depression was administered and participants were paired on the severity of their symptoms.

Answer 11

Matched pairs

Question 12

Describe internal and external validity

Answer 12

Internal validity is including what goes on within the experiment while external validity is about generalising the findings to other situations

Question 13

Give 2 strengths of a lab experiment

Answer 13

High internal validity due to the control of variables + standardised instructions increase repeatability and therefore reliability

Question 14

Give 2 weaknesses of a lab experiment

Answer 14

Can lack generalisability and has low ecological validity - artificial situations + demand characteristics are common, lowering reliability

Question 15

Compare quasi and natural experiments

Answer 15

natural experiments are where a researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing independent variable (ppts may be tested in lab or field), while quasi experiments have an IV that is based on an existing difference between people eg age, gender

Question 16

Give one strength and one weakness of a field experiment

Answer 16

Strength: high ecological validity - more real life applications therefore high reliability.
Weakness: ethical issues such as informed consent and confidentiality

Question 17

Name as many types of bias as you can

Answer 17

Researcher bias, social desirability bias, culture bias, sampling bias

Question 18

Give a strength of a random sample

Answer 18

No researcher bias - they don’t choose people that could support their hypothesis

Question 19

What is volunteer bias and why is it a problem for the volunteer sample method?

Answer 19

The volunteer method may attract a particular profile of individual, eg. someone who is interested in what you are investigating and therefore knows more about it (demand characteristics)

Question 20

Name a strength of systematic sampling

Answer 20

Avoids researcher bias

Question 21

How would you obtain informed consent from people under 18yrs old?

Answer 21

A letter/email to the parents detailing the experiments aims and procedure - allowing them to sign and consent on behalf of the child

Question 22

Describe presumptive consent and why would this be used?

Answer 22

A similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable - used when the researcher doesn’t want to spoil experiment

Question 23

Under what circumstances is deception allowed?

Answer 23

If it wouldn’t cause the ppt undue stress

Question 24

What should happen at the end of a study?

Answer 24

Debrief - Gives individuals a right to withdraw

Question 25

How are personal details protected?

Answer 25

Anonymity - not identifying name

Question 26

Define the term ‘pilot study’

Answer 26

Small scale version of an investigation - aiming to check that procedures work

Question 27

What is the key difference between a natural and controlled observation? And give an example of a controlled observation

Answer 27

Natural - Context where the behaviour would usually occur, aspects of the environment are free to vary.
Controlled - Control over EV’s eg. Mary Ainsworth’
s strange situation

Question 28

Define covert and overt observations

Answer 28

Covert - Ppt’s behaviour is being watched without their knowledge
Overt - Ppt’s behaviour is being watched with their knowledge

Question 29

Explain a weakness of covert observations

Answer 29

Ethical issues regarding informed consent as the participant may not want to be studied and issues with confidentiality

Question 30

Define ppt and non-ppt observations

Answer 30

Ppt - researcher becomes a member of the group being observed
Non - ppt - researcher is outside of the group

Question 31

Explain 2 strengths and 2 limitations of questionnaires

Answer 31

Strengths: Cost effective - Generates a large amount of data without the researcher being present and can be easily accessed
Data is usually quantitative - Closed ended questions makes it easy to analyse and put into a statistical graph HOWEVER, low reliability as closed-ended questions may be interpreted wrong, social desirability bias and may not match how the person feels.
Demand characteristics - People will be aware of what the researcher is looking to find out

Question 32

Give a strength and weakness of structured interviews

Answer 32

Easy to replicate (standardised instructions)
Difficult to go further into detail

Question 33

Give a strength and weakness of unstructured interviews

Answer 33

More flexibility - higher reliability as more detail is given
Analysis of data = qualitative - difficult to analyse

Question 34

Give a weakness of a meta-analysis

Answer 34

Researcher bias and time consuming

Question 35

Give a strength of a meta analysis

Answer 35

Increases sample size - high reliability

Question 36

What does a large standard deviation mean?

Answer 36

Suggests that not all ppts were affected in the same way by the IV or few anomalous results

Question 37

What is a positive skew on a distribution graph?

Answer 37

Most of the distribution is concentrated to the left

Question 38

Outline the sign test in 5 steps

Answer 38

• Convert the data to nominal data by subtracting the score on any column from the other column. If the answer is negative, put a - and if its positive put a + (the ones that are the same dont matter)
• Add up the pluses and minuses
• Take the less frequent sign and call this S
• Compare calculated value (S) to critical value 0.05/5%
• if the value is lower than the critical value it is significant

Question 39

What is the critical value?

Answer 39

0.05

Question 40

What are 3 aims of peer reviewing?

Answer 40

Allocate research funding
Validate quality and relevance of research
Suggest improvements