Research Methods Flashcards
What is a laboratory experiment?
experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
What is a strength of a laboratory experiment?
high control over extraneous and confounding variables
What is a limitation of a laboratory experiment?
lacks generalisability
What is a field experiment?
experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
What is a strength of a field experiment?
higher mundane realism as environment is more natural
What is a limitation of a field experiment?
loss of control of confounding and environmental variables, so difficult to establish cause and effect between IV and DV
What is a natural experiment?
experiment where change in IV is not brought about by the researcher (e.g. natural disater) and the researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on
What is a strength of a natural experiment?
high external validity because they involve the study of real-world issues and problems as they happen
What is a limitation of a natural experiment?
naturally occurring event may only happen rarely, reducing the opportunities for research
What is a quasi experiment?
a STUDY where the IV has not been determined by anyone as the variables simply exist (e.g. young vs old)
What is a strength of a quasi experiment?
high ecological validity because there has been no manipulation of the independent variable
What is a limitation of a quasi experiment?
cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore may be confounding participants
What are the 4 Experimental methods?
- Laboratory experiment
- Field experiment
- Natural experiment
- Quasi-experiment
What is a naturalistic observation?
watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur
What is a strength of a naturalistic observation?
high external validity as can be generalised to everyday life
What is a limitation of a naturalistic observation?
lack of control over research situation makes replication difficult
What is a controlled observation?
watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment
What is a strength of a controlled observation?
confounding and extraneous variables are less of a factor so replication is easier
What is a limitation of a controlled observation?
may produce findings that cannot be as readily applied to everyday life
What is a covert observation?
participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
What is a strength of a covert observation?
removes demand characteristics and ensures behaviour observed is natural
What is a limitation of a covert observation?
unethical as has not consented (right to privacy)
What is an overt observation?
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
What is a strength of an overt observation?
more ethical than covert as they have given consent
What is a limitation of an overt observation?
demand characteristics; may of changed their behaviour as knew they were being observed
What is a participant observation?
the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
What is a strength of a participant observation?
increased insight to the participants so may increase internal validity
What is a limitation of a participant observation?
could lose OBJECTIVITY as may come to identify too strongly with the participants
What is a non-participant observation?
the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
What is a strength of a non-participant observation?
less danger of them adopting a local lifestyle as has maintained an objective psychological distance from their participants
What is a limitation of a non-participant observation?
may lose the valuable insight to be gained from becoming a participant
What are the 3 groups of observational techniques?
- Naturalistic vs Controlled
- Covert vs Overt
- Participant vs Non-Participant
What is a questionnaire?
a set of written questions use to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences
What is an open question?
question for which there are no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish
What is a closed question?
questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter
What is an interview?
a live encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences
What is a semi-structured interview?
is a mix between pre-determined questions and follow-up questions based on previous answers
What is a structured interview?
made up of pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
What is an unstructured interview?
like a conversation, there are no set questions and tends to be free-flowing
What is a strength of a questionnaire?
cost effective and can be completed without the researcher being present
What is a limitation of a questionnaire?
responses may not always be truthful; social desirability bias
What is a strength of a structured interview?
straightforward to replicate due to standardised format
What is a limitation of a structured interview?
limits the richness of the data as cannot deviate form the set questions
What is a strength of an unstructured interview?
flexibility, which can give more rich data
What is a limitation of an unstructured interview?
may lead to an increase in interviewer bias
What are the 4 types of self-report techniques?
- Questionnaires
- Structured Interviews
- Semi-Structured Interviews
- Unstructured Interviews
What is a co-variable?
variables investigated within a correlation
What is the difference between correlations and experiments?
an experiment the researcher controls or manipulates the IV in order to measure the effect on the DV. Correlation there is no manipulation of a variable and is not possible to establish a cause and effect
What is an aim?
a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; purpose of the study
What is the difference between an aim and hypothesis?
an aim is what you are going to research whereas a hypothesis is what you think will happen; a prediction of the results
What is a hypothesis?
a clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated
What is a directional hypothesis?
states the direction of the difference or relationship
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
does not state the direction of the difference or relationship
What is a sample?
a group of people who take part in a research investigation and is drawn from a target population
What is the difference between a sample and population?
a population is a group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest whereas a sample is a smaller group of people form this population
What is a random sample?
all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
What are the implications of random sampling? including bias and generalisation
unbiased; confounding and extraneous variables equally divided in the groups increasing internal validity
moderate generalisation; as could be unrepresentative or could not
What is a systematic sample?
is when every nth member of the target population is selected
What are the implications of systematic sampling? including bias and generalisation
unbiased; researcher has no influence over who is chosen
What is a stratified sample?
the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population
What are the implications of stratified sampling? including bias and generalisation
somewhat biased; researcher decides the strata
good generalisation; produces a representative sample
What is an opportunity sample?
anyone who happens to be willing and available will take part
What are the implications of opportunity sampling? including bias and generalisation
very biased; researcher has complete control over who can take part
very low generalisation; unrepresentative
What is a volunteer sample?
participants selecting themselves to be a part of a sample
What are the implications of volunteer sampling? including bias and generalisation
high bias; may attract a certain profile
low generalisation; less representative
What are the 5 sampling techniques?
- Random
- Systematic
- Stratified
- Opportunity
- Volunteer
What is a pilot study?
a small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation
What is the aim of a pilot study?
to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc work and to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary
What is a single-blind procedure?
researcher is aware of the test being conducted. participants are unaware of the test being conducted
What is a double-blind procedure?
neither the participants not the researcher is aware of the aims of the investigation
What are repeated measures?
all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
What are independent groups?
participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
What are matched pairs?
pairs of participants are first matched on some variable that may effect the DV then one member of the pair is assigned to a condition A or B
What are the 3 types of experimental designs?
- Independent groups
- Repeated measures
- Matched pairs
What are behavioural categories?
when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation)
What is event sampling?
a target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
What is time sampling?
a target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame e.g. every 60 seconds
What are the 3 observational designs?
- Behavioural categories
- Event sampling
- Time sampling
What is an independent variable?
some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally so the effect on the DV can be measured
What is a dependent variable?
the variable that is measured by the researcher
What is an extraneous variable?
any variable other than the IV that may effect the DV if it is not controlled
What is a confounding variable?
a kind of extraneous variable but varies systematically with the IV, so cant tell if DV is due to IV or CV
What is the operationalisation of variables?
clearly defines variables in terms of how they can be measured
What is random allocation?
an attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensured that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition
What is counterbalancing?
an attempt to control for the effect of order in a repeated measures design: half participants experience conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order
What is randomisation?
the use of chance methods to reduce the researcher’s unconscious biases when designing an investigation
What is standardistaion?
using exactly the same formulised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
What are demand characteristics?
any cue from the researcher or situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation
What are investigator effects?
any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome
What is the BPS code of ethics?
a quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that states what is and isn’t acceptable behaviour
What are the 4 major principals of the BPS?
- Informed consent
- Deception
- Protection form harm
- Privacy and confidentiality
What are the 3 roles of peer review in the scientific process?
- allocate research funding
- validate quality and relevance of research
- suggest amendments and improvements
What are the 3 evaluations of peer review?
- Anonymity
- Publication bias
- burying groundbreaking research
What are the 2 main implications of psychological research for the economy?
- attachment research into the role of the father
- development of treatments for mental disorders
What is quantitative data?
data that can be counted; usually given in numbers
What is qualitative data?
data that is expressed in words
How would quantitative data be collected?
gather numerical data in the form of individual scores from participant
How would qualitative data be collected?
with the interpretation of language from an interview for example
What is primary data?
information that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purpose of a research project
What is secondary data?
information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project
What is meta analysis?
the process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a particular topic to produce an overall statistical conclusion based on a range of studies
What is a mode?
most frequently occurring value in a set of data
What are the 3 measures of central tendency?
- mean
- mode
- median
What is a range?
calculation of dispersion
What is standard deviation?
measure of dispersion that tells us how much on average each score deviates from the mean
What are the 5 ways to present quantitative data?
- Graphs
- Table
- Bar charts
- Histogram
- Scattergram
What are the characteristics of a normal distribution?
bell-shaped curve which is symmetrical. mean, median and mode all occupy the same midpoint of the curve. tail never touches the x-axis
What are the characteristics of a skewed distribution?
distributions that lean one side or the other. positive skew is towards left of graph with long tail on right. negative skew is on right of graph with long tail to the left
What is 1 standard deviation above and below the mean?
68.26%
What is 2 standard deviation above and below the mean?
95.44%
What is 3 standard deviation above and below the mean?
99.73%
What is the sign test?
a statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items
When do you use the sign test?
to determine if the difference you have found is significant
How do you calculate the sign test?
1) subtract data from each other resulting in a +, -, or =
2) add up total of + and total of -
3) take less frequent sign and call is S (calculated value is S)
4)
i) compare calculated value with critical value
ii) critical value is number of participants - any = is N, find number on table
iii) use o.o5 level of significance
iv) find out if one-tailed (directional hypothesis) or two-tailed (non-directional hypothesis)
v) calculated value must be equal to or less than critical value to have significance
5) conclude
What is statistical testing?
provides a way of determining whether hypothesis should be accepted or rejected by determining if the relationship between the variables are significant
What is a correlation?
is an association (or relation) between 2 variables, known as co-variables
What is a correlation coefficient?
number between -1 and 1 representing the strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables
What are the strengths of correlations?
- mostly ethical
- based on real life data; not artificial
What are the limitations of correlations?
- can’t establish a cause and effect
- no manipulation over variables
What is a case study?
an in-depth investigation, description and/or analysis of a single individual/group
What does idiographic mean?
focuses on understanding a single person or case in depth
What does subjectivity mean?
tendency to interpret data or make judgements
What does generalisability mean?
extent to which research findings obtained from a sample can be applied to a broader population
What does triangulation mean?
to use different methods to extract information to provide a clear understanding/conclusion
what does universality mean?
to assume that one’s personal quantities and characteristics are common in the general social group or culture
What are the strengths of case studies?
- quantitative data
- triangulation
- ecological validity
What are the limitations of case studies?
- subjectivity
- replication
- time
What is a content analysis?
observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material
What is a thematic analysis?
a quantitative approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data
What is coding (content analysis)?
where the communication is analysed by identifying every time an identified, operationalised behavioural categories is mentioned. turns qualitative data into quantitative
What are the strengths of a content analysis?
- uses both Quantitative and Qualitative data
- limited ethical issues
- high external validity
highly reliable
What are the limitations of a content analysis?
- subjectivity
- data is analysed outside the context in which it was produced
- indirect method
What does internal validity mean?
findings are certain as the changes of the DV are due to the IV
What does external validity mean?
findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings
What does ecological validity mean?
generalising research methodology to specific real-life tasks and behaviour
What does population validity mean?
refers to whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group
What does temporal validity mean?
findings from a research study can be generalised to other times and eras
What does face validity mean?
test looks like it measures what it is supposed to measure
What does concurrent validity mean?
measure is in agreement with another pre-existing measurement. Correlation must exceed +0.8
What does reliability mean?
measure of consistency
What is test retest?
compete it multiple times to show the extent the test produces the same answers
What is inter-observer reliability?
when there is an agreement between two or more observers
How do you improve validity?
Experiments:
- control group
- standardisation
Questionnaires:
- social desirability
- anonymous
Observations:
- non-participant
- covert
Qualitative research:
- triangulation
How do you improve reliability?
Experiments:
- test retest method
- maximise control
Questionnaires:
- don’t ask too leading or ambiguous questions
- test retest method
Observations:
- operationalise behavioural categories
- utilise a structed approach to the research method
Interviews:
- use same interviewer every time
- prioritise closed, less ambiguous questions
What is the table for choosing an inferential statistic?
__________/_____difference____/correlation
__________/Unrelated/Related/____________
Nominal/__Chi Sq___/Sign Test/__Chi Sq__
Ordinal_/Mann-Whi_/Wilcox/__Sp Rho__
Interval_/Un T test/ R T test / Pearson R
What is the rhyme to remember the inferential statistic table?
Carrots Should Come
Mashed With Suede
Under Roast Potatoes
What does Nominal mean?
categorical data, discrete. each item can only appear in one category (look at DV)
What does Ordinal mean?
ordered in some way, does not have equal intervals between each unit. Lacks precision as based on subjective opinion. Often in the form of rankings or scale
What does Interval mean?
based on numerical scales that include units of equal, precisely defined size. There is a true 0, most sophisticated form. Objective as everyone would get the same measurement.
How do you calculate the probability and significance?
1) Find your calculated value (in the STEM or calculated via Sign Test)
2) What statistical test is being used? Find the table of critical values
3)Was the hypothesis used one tailed or two tailed?
4) Do you need to use the number of participants (N) or degrees of freedom?
a. If degrees of freedom, what formula do you need?
5) What level of probability will the psychologist use?
6) Read the table of critical values and find your critical value
7) Does the name of the statistical test have an R in it?
a. If yes (R) – calculated value must be greater than the critical value to be significant
b. If not (no R) – calculated value must be lower than the critical value to be significant
8) What hypothesis (alternative or null) will you be accepting?
What is a null hypothesis?
States there is no relationship or difference between 2 variables
It is the hypothesis that the researcher tries to disprove
H0
What is an alternative hypothesis?
States there is a relationship or difference between 2 variables
It is the hypothesis that the researcher tries to prove
This can be directional or non directional
H1 or Ha
What does Paradigm mean?
agreed set of beliefs, methods, principles etc
What is a Paradigm shift?
change form an old agreed belief to a new agreed belief
What does Falsifiability mean?
you need to be able to disprove a theory
What is the Empirical method?
gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience
What does objectivity mean?
all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distract the research process - maintaining a critical distance between the person and data
What does replicability mean?
repeating specific procedures to test validity of findings
What is the theory of construction?
collecting data through investigations and formulating it into a single explanation/account (theory)
What is hypothesis testing?
developing a hypothesis, collecting data and then proving it correct and keeping the hypothesis. Or proving it incorrect and altering the hypothesis to be re-tested.
Name the 8 features of science
Paradigm
Paradigm Shift
Falsifiability
The Empirical Method
Objectivity
Replicability
Theory of Construction
Hypothesis Testing
What is the rule of R?
If there is a letter R in the name of the test, the calculated value should be greater or equal to the critical value
Cal>/S
If there is no R, the calculated value should be less than or equal to the critical value
Cal</S
