Research Methods Flashcards

Question

How can the validity of Observations be improved?

Answer 1

. Observational research tends to produce data high in ecological validity, as there is minimal intervention by the researcher. This is especially true for covert observations . Behavioural categories that are too broad, overlapping, or ambiguous can reduce validity

Answer 2

. Qualitative research is typically seen as having higher ecological validity than quantitative methods, as the detail and depth associated with qualitative methods eg. case studies, interviews is seen being better at reflecting participants' realities. However the researcher may still have to demonstrate the interpretative validity of their conclusions. This can be shown through the coherence of the researchers narrative, and including direct quotes from participants Validity is also enhanced through triangulation - using multiple sources as evidence eg. data compiled through interviews with friends and family, personal diaries, observations etc..

Answer 3

The extent to which the researchers interpretation of events matches that of their participants

Answer 4

. Abstract . Introduction . Method . Results . Discussion . Referencing

Answer 5

A short summary which outlines the major elements of the research - the aims, hypotheses, procedure, results and conclusions. The key details of the report.

Answer 6

A literature review of the chosen area of research. It details the theories, concepts and studies relevant to the current study. It should follow a logical progression, beginning broadly and becoming more specific throughout until the aims and hypotheses of the current research are presented

Answer 7

A description of what the researcher did/their procedure. It should include sufficient detail, so that other researchers would be able to replicate the study if they wished. It should include: . Design - it is clearly stated what design is used eg. independent groups, naturalistic observation - an explanation for the choice of design should be given . Sample - Information related to the people involved in the study - Number of people involved, biological/demographic information, sampling method, target population . Apparatus/materials - Description of the assessment materials, and other relevant materials . Procedure - Details of the steps involved in the experiment, from beginning to end. Includes a record of everything said to participants - briefing, standardised instructions, debriefing . Ethics - An explanation of how any ethical concerns were addressed within the study

Answer 8

A summary of the key findings of the investigation. It is likely to include descriptive statistics eg. tables, graphs, charts, measures of central tendency. It also includes inferential statistics eg. the choice of statistical test, critical values, level of significance, what hypotheses was rejected If qualitative methods have been used, there will likely be an analysis of themes/categories

Answer 9

A consideration of what the findings of the research study tell us in terms of psychological theory. Results are summarised in verbal, rather than statistical form. These results should be discussed within the context of the evidence presented in the introduction, as well as other relevant research. The researcher should discuss the limitations of the present investigation, and how these could be addressed in the future. The wider implications of the research are considered. This can include real-world applications of what has been discovered, and what contributions the research has made to the existing knowledge base within the field

Answer 10

Full details of any source material cited in the report eg. journal articles, books, websites

Answer 11

Author(s), Date, Article title, Journal name (in italics), Volume (issue), Page numbers

Answer 12

Author(s), Date, Title of Book (in italics), Place of publication, Publisher

Answer 13

Source, Date, Title, Weblink, Date accessed

Answer 14

. Paradigms and paradigm shifts . Theory construction and hypothesis testing . Falsifiability . Replicability . Objectivity and the empirical methods

Answer 15

. Paradigm - A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline . Paradigm shift - The result of a scientific revolution where there is a significant change in the dominant, unifying theory in a scientific discipline Kuhn (1962) suggested that what distinguishes scientific and non-scientific disciplines are paradigms. Natural sciences are characterised by having a number of principles at their core eg. the theory of evolution in biology. However the social sciences, such as psychology, lack a universally accepted paradigm as there are too many internal disagreements and conflicting approaches. Kuhn argued that they are better seen as a pre-science. Kuhn also said that progress within an established science occurs when there is a scientific revolution - a handful of researchers begin to question an accepted paradigm, this criticism gathers popularity and pace, and eventually a paradigm shift occurs as there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore.

Answer 16

. Theory construction - The process of developing an explanation for the causes of behaviour by systematically gathering evidence via direct observation, and then organising this into a coherent account . Hypothesis testing - A key feature of a theory is that it should produce statements which are testable. Through this, a theory can be falsified. Theories should suggest a number of possible hypotheses, which can then be tested using systematic and objective methods. If these methods support the theory, it will be strengthened. If they refute it, it may need to be revised. The process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory is known as deduction.

Answer 17

A set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours

Answer 18

The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being able to be proved false. Popper (1934) argued that the key criterion of scientific theory is falsifiability. Genuine scientific theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false. Even if a scientific principle has been successfully tested, it isn't necessarily true - it just hasn't been proven false. Studies which survive multiple attempts to falsify them are considered the strongest, not because they have been proven right, but because they haven't been proven wrong. Pseudosciences cannot be falsified.

Answer 19

. The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers An important aspect of Popper's approach to features of science is replicability - if a scientific theory is to be trusted, its findings must have been shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts. Replication is also important in proving validity, as by repeating a study across different circumstances we can determine how far it can be accurately generalised. To enable replication, psychologists must report their investigations with precision and rigor

Answer 20

. Objectivity - All sources of personal bias are minimised so as to not distort or influence the research process . Empirical method - Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience Researchers must maintain objectivity in investigations - they must maintain a 'critical distance' during research, not allowing their personal views or biases to affect the data they collect, or to influence the behaviour of participants being studied. In general, methods associated with higher levels of control eg. lab studies, tend to be the most objective Objectivity is based on the empirical method, which emphasise the importance of data collection based on direct, sensory experience. Examples include the experimental method and observational method

Answer 21

The tendency for participants to react to cues from the researcher or the research environment

Answer 22

Any effect of the investigator's behaviour (whether conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV). This can include the design of the study, and the selection of and interaction with participants.

Answer 23

A form of research design where a participant is not aware of research aims, or of the condition of the experiment they are involved in

Answer 24

Where neither the participant nor researcher conducting the study are aware of the research aims or other important details of the study, and thus have no expectations that might alter a participants behaviour

Answer 25

A tendency for respondents to answer questions in a way that presents them in a better light

Answer 26

Using the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

Answer 27

Inferential tests - Tests used to determine whether there is a significant difference or correlation between or within investigations

Answer 28

More of an association than could have occurred by chance

Answer 29

1. Whether the researcher is looking for a DIFFERENCE OR CORRELATION/ASSOCIATION - can be derived from the wording of the hypothesis 2. If the researcher is looking for a difference, what EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN is being used - a related design (repeated measures or matched pair) or unrelated (independent groups) 3. Whether the data is NOMINAL, ORDINAL, OR INTERVAL

Answer 30

1. When the researcher is looking for a DIFFERENCE 2. UNRELATED DESIGN 3. NOMINAL DATA or 1. The researcher is looking for a CORRELATION 3. The data is NOMINAL

Answer 31

1. The researcher is looking for a DIFFERENCE 2. UNRELATED DESIGN 3. ORDINAL DATA

Answer 32

1. The researcher is looking for a DIFFERENCE 2. UNRELATED DESIGN 3. INTERVAL DATA

Answer 33

1. The researcher is looking for a DIFFERENCE 2. RELATED DESIGN 3. NOMINAL DATA

Answer 34

1. The researcher is looking for a DIFFERENCE 2. RELATED DESIGN 3. ORDINAL DATA

Answer 35

1. The researcher is looking for a DIFFERENCE 2. RELATED DESIGN 3. INTERVAL DATA

Answer 36

1. The researcher is looking for an association/correlation 3. ORDINAL DATA

Answer 37

1. The researcher is looking for an association/correlation 3. INTERVAL DATA

Answer 38

A form of quantitative data, where data is represented in the form of categories. Eg. Asking people if they like chocolate - those who say yes are one category, those who say no are another. Nominal Data is discrete, as only one item can appear in each of the categories eg. If you ask people their favourite football team, their vote will only appear in one category

Answer 39

A form of quantitative data, where data is ordered in some way. Eg. asking people how much they like psychology on a scale of 1 to 10 Ordinal Data does not have equal intervals between each unit - it would not make sense to say that someone who rated psychology an 8 likes it two times as much as someone who rated it a 4 It can be seen as lacking precision as it is based on subjective opinion - eg. two people may give the value of 4 on a 1-10 scale different worth. As such, in statistical tests ordinal data is altered - raw scores are converted to ranks eg. 1st, 2nd, 3rd - and it is these that are used

Answer 40

A form of quantitative data, where the data is based on numerical scales that includes units of equal, precisely defined size eg. scales of measurement such as time, temperature - if you recorded how long it took students to take a test, you would be recording interval data.

Answer 41

States the direction of the difference or relationship

Answer 42

Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship

Answer 43

The statement of no difference, correlation or association between the variables being studied

Answer 44

Determine whether a hypothesis is 'true', and by extension whether we accept or reject the null hypothesis

Answer 45

0.05 or 5% Probability must be greater than or equal to 5% to be significant

Answer 46

All members of a population haven't been tested under all possible circumstances

Answer 47

When a statistical test has been calculated - the result is a number (the calculated value). To test for statistical significance, the calculated value must be compared to a critical value. Each statistical test has their own critical values (or 'R' value) For some tests, the calculated value must be greater than or equal to the critical value. For others, the calculated value must be less than or equal to the critical value

Answer 48

1. If the test is one-tailed or two-tailed - A one-tailed test is used for a directional hypothesis, while a two-tailed test is used for a non-directional hypothesis 2. The number of participants in the study, or N value 3. The level of significance, or P value - the 0.05 value is standard

Answer 49

In studies where there is a human cost eg. drug trials, or in 'one-off' studies that couldn't be replicated - in these cases, a more precise value such as 0.01 value may be used - the lower the p value, the more statistically significant the result

Answer 50

When the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true, and the alternative hypothesis is accepted - sometimes referred to as a false positive as the researcher claims to have found a significant relationship, when it doesn't exist. Occurs when the significance is too high or lenient

Answer 51

When the null hypothesis is accepted when it is false, and the alternative hypothesis is rejected - a false negative. Occurs when the significance is too low or strict

Answer 52

A general statement of what the researchers intents to investigate - the purpose of the study

Answer 53

A clear, precise and testable statement that states the relationship between the variables being investigated. It can be directional or non-directional

Answer 54

When a theory or the findings of a previous piece of research suggest a particular outcome

Answer 55

Involves the manipulation of an Independent Variable to measure the effect on the Dependent Variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural, or quasi

Answer 56

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

Answer 57

Any variable, other than the Independent Variable, that may affect the Dependent Variable if not controlled. They do not vary systematically with the Independent Variable.

Answer 58

A form of extraneous variable that DOES vary systematically with the Independent Variable. Therefore we can't tell if any change in the Dependent Variable is due to the manipulation of the Independent Variable, or the confounding variable

Answer 59

Any cue from the researcher or research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to the participant changing their behaviour. This unnatural behaviour is an extraneous variable.

Answer 60

The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions. It aims to reduce extraneous/confounding variables, specifically investigator effects

Answer 61

Using the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

Answer 62

The different ways participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

Answer 63

. Independent groups . Repeated measures . Matched pairs

Answer 64

Where two or more separate groups of participants are placed into different conditions of the experiment. One group represents one experimental condition. Group 1 would do Condition A, and Group 2 Condition B

Answer 65

Where all participants experience both/all conditions of the experiment. A participant would first take part in Condition A, then later take part in condition B.

Answer 66

Participants are paired together based on variables, or a single variable, relevant to the experiment. Eg. in a memory study participants may be matched based on IQ. A participant from each pair is then placed in each condition.

Answer 67

- Problems with validity - Participants in each group are different in terms of participant variables. If researchers find a difference between the groups in terms of the dependent variable, they cant be certain if this is because of the independent variable or participant variables. These differences can act as confounding variables, reducing the validity of the study. To deal with this, researchers may use random allocation, but this doesn't fully solve the issue - More expensive and time consuming - Each participant is only used once, so more time and money has to be spent recruiting more participants. Twice as much is needed to produce the same amount of data as a repeated measures design + No order effects - Participants are only used once, meaning participants are less likely to guess the aims of the study or show any practice or fatigue effects, increasing the internal validity of the study.

Answer 68

- Order effects - Participants appear in both conditions, so may experience order effects. These could take the form of Fatigue effects, where participants become tired or bored by the time they take part in the second condition, or Practice effects, where they perform better in the second condition as they have had practice with the task when doing the first condition. Order acts as a confounding variable. To deal with it, researchers may use counterbalancing, where half the participants do condition A first, then condition B, while the other half do condition B first, then condition A. - Demand characteristics - When participants do all conditions of the experiment it becomes more likely that they will work out the aim of the study. This is why demand characteristics are more of a problem in Repeated measures designs. + Participant variables are controlled - The same participants are used in each condition, so participant variables are reduced leading to higher validity + Less costly and time consuming - Same participants are used in all conditions, so less participants have to be recruited than in an independent or matched pairs design

Answer 69

+ Order effects - Not a problem as participants only take part in one condition + Demand characteristics - Also less of a problem as participants are only taking part in one condition, so are less likely to guess the research aims - Participant variables are less of a problem - as participants are matched for key characteristics, increasing the studies validity. However participants can never be fully matched, so there may still be important differences affecting the dependent variable - Costly and time consuming - Because different participants are used in each condition, but also because a pre-test may be required to ensure matching of pairs is accurate and effective

Answer 70

. Laboratory experiment . Field experiment . Natural experiment . Quasi experiment

Answer 71

An experiment that takes place in a highly controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the Independent variable and records the effect on the Dependent variable. Participants may be required to travel to the location of the study, but the location may not always be a lab eg. it could be a school. Strict control of extraneous variables is maintained.

Answer 72

+ High control of confounding and extraneous variables - this means the researcher can be more certain that any effect on the dependent variable is the result of the manipulation of the Independent variable. We can be more certain about establishing cause and effect, increasing the research's internal validity + High replicability - Replication is more possible than in other types of experiment as there is a high level of control. This can help to ensure that new extraneous variables are not introduced when repeating an experiment - Low Generalisability - Lab experiments may lack generalisability as the environment used may be artificial and unlike everyday life. Participants may behave differently due to the lab setting, so their behaviour can't be generalised beyond the research setting (low external validity) - Risk of Demand characteristics - Participants are usually aware that they are being tested in a lab experiment, so even if they don't know why there is still the risk of demand characteristics - Low mundane realism - The tasks participants are asked to carry out are often unrepresentative of everyday activities eg. recalling a random list of words in a memory study - this is often not how memory is used in everyday life

Answer 73

An experiment that takes part in a natural setting where the researcher manipulates the Independent variable and records the effect on the Dependent variable. The researcher travels to the participants usual environment

Answer 74

+ Higher mundane realism - The independent variable is manipulated in a more natural, everyday setting, so participants may produce behaviour that is more natural and authentic, especially if participants are unaware that they are being studied (high external validity) - Less control of confounding and extraneous variables - this means that cause and effect relationships in field experiments are more difficult to establish. It also means that replication is less possible - Ethical concerns - If participants are unaware that they are being studied they cannot consent to being studied - so the research may violate ethical guidelines as an invasion of privacy

Answer 75

The researcher has no control or manipulation of the independent variable - it is naturally occurring - but they do still measure the effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable may also be naturally occurring eg. exam results. The research setting can be natural or a lab environment.

Answer 76

+ Access to unique research opportunities - Natural experiments provide an opportunity to research areas that may not otherwise be studied for practical or ethical issues (eg. effects of institutionalisation and Romanian orphan studies) + High external validity - As they involve the study of real-world issues and problems as they occur eg. the effects of a natural disaster on stress levels - Limited replicability - A naturally occurring event may only happen rarely, limiting opportunities for similar research - Participants might not be randomly allocated - Participants might not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions (eg. in Romanian orphan studies, the independent variable was whether children were adopted early or late - but there may be differences between participants that affect results. For example, poor social skills could be seen as a result of long term institutionalisation - but the children might have been in an institution for a long time because they already had poor social skills which made them less attractive to parents). This reduces realism, and can make demand characteristics an issue

Answer 77

Have a pre-existing Independent variable (eg. age, gender) which isn't determined by the researcher. It is an existing difference. The dependent variable may be naturally occurring, or be devised by the experimenter and measured in the field or a lab.

Answer 78

+ Carried out under controlled conditions - so have higher replicability - Participants cant be randomly allocated to conditions, as they are based on existing differences, so there may be confounding variables - The Independent variable is not deliberately changed by the researcher, so we cannot claim it has caused any observed changed (cause and effect)

Answer 79

A group of people the researcher is interested in studying eg. women in their fifties. Also known as the target population, as it is a chosen subset of the wider population. From this, a sample is drawn.

Answer 80

A smaller group of people who are part of the target population. Ideally, the sample is representative of the target population so that the findings of a study are generalisable.

Answer 81

When certain groups are over or under-represented within a sample eg. too many young people, too many people from one ethnic background. It is often difficult to prevent bias due to the diverse nature of most populations.

Answer 82

. Random sample . Systematic sample . Stratified sample . Opportunity sample . Volunteer sample

Answer 83

A list of all members of a target population is obtained. All names on the list are assigned a number, A lottery method eg. picking numbers out of a hat, random number generator is used to pick participants. All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected

Answer 84

+ Potentially unbiased - as the researcher has no control over who is selected. - A representative sample is not guaranteed - Difficult and time consuming - It may be difficult to obtain a list of the target population, and can take a long time to contact them all - Participants may refuse to take part - this can lead to something more similar to a volunteer sample, which could lead to volunteer bias

Answer 85

When every nth member of a target population is selected eg. every 5th person on a school register. A sampling frame is produced, where every member of of the target population is put into a list. A sampling system is nominated eg. every 3rd, 10th person. It may begin from a randomly determined start, rather than the first person on the list, in order to reduce bias. A desired number of participants is chosen, and the researcher works through the sample until this number is fulfilled.

Answer 86

+ Objective method - once the system has been established the researcher has no control over who is chosen - Representative sample not guaranteed - Time consuming - Participants may refuse to take part - leading to volunteer bias

Answer 87

Where the proportions of the sample reflect the proportions of certain subgroups - strata - in the target population. The researcher first identifies the different strata that make up a population. Then the proportions of each strata in the population is worked out. The percentages in the population are the percentages that will be used in the sample. Finally, the participants that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling.

Answer 88

+ Representative - the sample is designed to represent the composition of a population. This increases the generalisability of research findings - The identified strata can't reflect all the ways populations differ, so complete representation of a population isn't possible

Answer 89

As representative samples are difficult to obtain, many researchers prefer to select anyone who is willing and available to be their participants. The researcher asks anyone who is around at the time of their study.

Answer 90

+ Convenient and less costly - A list of members of a target population isn't required, and participants are found easily and quickly from whoever is close and available - Unrepresentative - the sample is drawn from a particular area eg. one street or town so can't reflect the wider population, and generalisations cant be made - Researcher bias - The researcher has complete control of the selection of participants, so may avoid choosing people they don't like the look of

Answer 91

Participants select themselves to be part of the study (self-selection). Researchers may place an advert in the newspaper or a noticeboard asking for volunteers, and participants will then respond.

Answer 92

+ Less time consuming - Collecting a volunteer sample requires little input from the researcher, as participants come to them. + Engaged participants - The researcher ends up with participants who want to take part in the study, so they are more likely to engage with the research - Volunteer bias - asking for volunteers may attract a certain 'profile' of person, usually someone who is curious and more likely to try and please the researcher, which can lead to demand characteristics and problems with generalisability

Answer 93

Problems that arise when a conflict exists between participants' rights and the researchers goal of gaining valuable and meaningful findings.

Answer 94

. Informed consent . Deception . Protection from harm . Privacy and confidentiality

Answer 95

Making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights (including the right to withdraw) and what their data will be used for. With this information, participants should then be able to make an informed decision about whether to take part in the research. The problem with informed consent is that it could make the study meaningless, as the participants knowing the aims of the study could make their behaviour less 'natural'

Answer 96

. Participants should be issued a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate, which then must be signed . For investigations using under 16's, a signature of parental consent is required

Answer 97

. Presumptive consent - Rather than getting consent from the participants, a similar group of individuals is asked if the study is acceptable. If the group agrees, consent of the actual participants is 'assumed' . Prior general consent - Participants give their permission to take part in several different studies, including ones that involve deception. Participants essentially agree to be deceived . Retrospective consent - Participants are asked for consent during the debrief. They may not have been aware of their participation, or may have been deceived.

Answer 98

Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation. It is linked to informed consent, as participants who have not received adequate information, or who have been deliberately lied to, cant give informed consent. However deception can sometimes be justified, if it doesn't cause the participant undue distress.

Answer 99

Participants' involvement should not place them in any more danger than they would experience in everyday life. They should be protected from physical and psychological harm (this can include being made to feel embarrassed, inadequate, or being placed under undue stress or pressure). An important feature of this is participants being made aware of their right to withdraw.

Answer 100

. Participants should be given a full debrief, where they are made aware of the true aims of the investigation and any details they were not aware of during the study eg. existence of other groups . Participants should be told what their data will be used for, and must be given the right to withhold data along with the right to withdraw (especially important in cases of retrospective consent) . Participants should be reassured in the debrief that their behaviour was typical or normal. If necessary, the researcher should provide counselling

Answer 101

Participants have the right to control information about themselves (privacy) and if this is invaded, their confidentiality should be protected. Confidentiality = our right to have any personal data protected. The right to privacy extends to the area where the study took place eg. institutions, geographical locations - they may not be named

Answer 102

. If personal details are held, they must be protected. However it is more likely that researchers wont record any personal details (instead maintaining anonymity). Researchers may refer to participants by numbers, their initials, or use pseudonyms. . During briefing and debriefing, participants are reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process and assured that their data will not be shared with other researchers

Answer 103

A code set by the British Psychological Society which includes ethical guidelines. The code is built around 4 main principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity. Guidelines are implemented by ethics committees in research institutions, who use a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether certain research proposals are ethically acceptable.

Answer 104

A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation. It involves a small handful of participants, rather than the full number. The aim is to ensure that procedures, materials, measuring scales ect. This allows the researcher to make modifications to the planned research if necessary. This saves time and money in the long term.

Answer 105

Where participants are unaware of the test being conducted and the research aims. Researchers are aware. Any information that might create expectations is not revealed until the end of the study to control for the confounding effects of demand characteristics.

Answer 106

Where both the participants and researchers are unaware of the aims of the investigation. Often a third party will conduct the investigation, without knowing its main purpose.

Answer 107

Control groups are used for the purpose of comparison. If the change in behaviour of the experimental group is significantly greater than that of the control group, the researcher can conclude that the cause of this effect was the independent variable.

Answer 108

Where behaviour is watched and recorded in the setting where the target behaviour would usually occur.

Answer 109

Where behaviour is watched and recorded within a structured environment eg. Ainsworth's strange situation. A structured environment may be a lab, or where variables are manipulated to observe effects and control confounding and extraneous variables

Answer 110

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent. In order for this kind of observation to be ethical, the target behaviour must be public and be happening naturally.

Answer 111

Participants are aware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded and they have given informed consent beforehand.

Answer 112

Where the researcher becomes part of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.

Answer 113

Where the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.

Answer 114

+ Insight into behaviour - Observations can be used to assess behaviour in its natural form, as in lab studies participants may change their behaviour. It can also be used to catch naturally occurring, unusual behaviour - Observer bias - The observers interpretation of a situation may be affected by their expectations for what behaviour might be like. This can be reduced by using multiple observers - Can't demonstrate causal behaviour - the observer doesn't manipulate any variables, so can't be sure about the causes of observed behaviours

Answer 115

+ Naturalistic observations - High external validity - Behaviour is studied within the environment that it would normally occur in, meaning findings can be generalised to everyday life. - Low replicability - The limited control of the research setting makes replication of the investigation difficult, as researchers can't account for uncontrolled confounding or extraneous variables, making it difficult to judge patterns of behaviour. - Controlled observations - Low external validity - Behaviour's are studied in an unnatural environment, or don't happen naturally. This could mean that findings can't be applied to everyday life + High replicability - The controlled nature means confounding/extraneous variables may be less of a factor, so an accurate replication is easier to achieve

Answer 116

+ Covert observation - Reduced risk of demand characteristics - Participants don't know the researcher is observing them, so don't behave in response to their presence. This ensures any behaviour observed will be natural, increasing the internal validity of the data gathered - Ethical concerns - If participant's are unaware that they are studied, they can't consent to be involved. Even if the behaviour is 'public', participants may not wish to have their behaviour recorded. Ethical guidelines mean that participants have the right to withdraw their data if they wish, which could mean the study loses some of its data, or even all of it. + Overt observation - Reduced ethical concerns - Participants can consent to being part of the research, knowing that behaviour will be observed, so their right to privacy isn't violated - Demand characteristics may be a problem - The knowledge that participants are being watched may lead to them displaying unnatural behaviour, reducing the studies internal validity

Answer 117

+ Participant observation - Increased insight into the target population - The researcher can experience the situation as the participants do, giving them a better understanding of their experiences and behaviours. This can increase the external validity of the findings - Loss of objectivity - If the researcher identifies too strongly with the participants, and may lose objectivity. This can be referred to as 'adopting a local lifestyle' - when the line between researcher and participant becomes blurred + Non-participant observation - allows the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from participants - However this carries the risk of the researcher losing insight, as they may be too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying

Answer 118

. Unstructured observation . Structured observation

Answer 119

Where the researcher writes down everything they see. This tends to produce data that is rich in detail, and can be useful in small scale research. But there is often too much going on in a single observation for an observer to accurately record every detail.

Answer 120

Unstructured observations benefit from more richness and depth of detail in the data collected

Answer 121

. Data may be more difficult to record and analyse . Greater risk of observer bias, as the objective behavioural categories present in structured observations are not present here. The researcher may only record eye caching behaviours, or those which support their hypothesis.

Answer 122

Where the researcher uses a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods

Answer 123

Structured observations involving the use of behavioural categories make the recording of data more systematic, meaning the data produced is more likely to be numerical and quantitative. As such, analysis and comparison of behaviour is easier and more straightforward.

Answer 124

A checklist produced when a target behaviour is operationalised and broken down into clearly defined, observable (with no need for inference), measurable categories. Eg. the target behaviour of 'affection' is broken down into the behavioural categories of hugging, kissing, smiling.

Answer 125

. Categories must be distinct and unambiguous . Researchers should ensure that all possible forms of a target behaviour are included in the checklist - there should not be a 'dustbin' category in which ignored behaviours are deposited . Categories should be exclusive and should not overlap

Answer 126

Behaviour may be recorded using a continuous recording of target behaviours (where all instances of the target behaviour are recorded), or using sampling methods. Continuous recording is more common with unstructured observations, but may be impractical for complex behaviours. Sampling methods are used in structured observations.

Answer 127

. Event sampling . Time sampling

Answer 128

Involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group.

Answer 129

+ Useful when the target behaviour tends to happen infrequently, meaning it could be missed using time sampling - If the specified event is too complex, the observer may overlook important details

Answer 130

Involves recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame eg. making note of how often an individual performs target behaviours every 30 seconds

Answer 131

+ Effective in reducing the number of observations that need to be made, so more practical and less time consuming - However instances when behaviour is sampled may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole

Answer 132

* Researchers should not conduct observational studies alone, as single researchers may miss important details or only record behaviours that confirm their hypotheses, which introduces bias. The data from the two researchers involved can be compared to check for consistency and reliability - Observers should familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories to be used - They then observe these behaviours at the same time, perhaps as part of a pilot study - Observers should compare the data they have recorded and discuss any differences in their interpretations - Observers should analyse data from the study. Inter-observer reliability is calculated by correlating each pair of observations made and producing an overall figure

Answer 133

Any method of investigation in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, behaviours or experiences related to a given topic. Self-report techniques include questionnaires and interviews

Answer 134

A set of written questions to which a participant responds, used to assess thoughts, feelings and experiences. Questionnaires may be the main method of research, or may be used within wider research to assess the dependent variable.

Answer 135

Into open and closed questions. Open questions - do not have a fixed range of answers, so participants are free to respond in any way they wish. Open questions typically produce more qualitative data, as respondents can elaborate on answers and give more detail. Closed questions - offer a fixed number of responses eg. yes/no, and tend to produce more quantitative data. HOWEVER it is important to note that the qualitative data produced by open questions can be converted into quantitative data eg. by counting the number of affirmative responses

Answer 136

Questionnaires allow researchers to gather large amounts of data quickly, as they can be distributed to large numbers of people. Questionnaires can also be completed without the researcher being present, such as in a postal questionnaire, making the process more time and energy effective. The data produced by questionnaires is usually straightforward to analyse, especially if the questionnaire is mostly composed of fixed-choice closed questions. This data lends itself to statistical analysis

Answer 137

Respondents may not always be truthful - they may be keen to present themselves in a positive light, which may influence their answers - social desirability bias. Questionnaires also produce a response bias, where participants tend to answer in a similar way eg. always ticking yes, or favouring a rating at the end of the scale. This may be because respondents complete the questionnaire too quickly and fail to read questions properly . Acquiescence bias may also occur, where participants have a tendency to agree with the items on a questionnaire, regardless of the content of the question

Answer 138

A live encounter (face-to-face or over the phone) where an interviewer asks a set of questions in order to assess a respondents thoughts and experiences. The questions may be pre-set or develop as the interview progresses

Answer 139

. Structured . Unstructured . Semi-structured

Answer 140

Interviews made up of a pre-determined set of questions, which are asked in a fixed order

Answer 141

Interviews which function similarly to a conversation, in the sense that there are no set questions but instead a general aim or topic of conversation to be discussed. The interaction is free-flowing, with interviews asking questions inspired by the participants previous response. The interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate upon their answer.

Answer 142

Interviews which involve a pre-determined list of questions, but interviewers are also free to ask follow-up questions based on previous answers. This is the type of interview which you are most likely to encounter in everyday life eg. job interviews

Answer 143

+ Replicability - structured interviews are easy to replicate, due to their standardised format. The format also reduces differences between interviewers and interviews - Quantitative data alone - structured interviews do not allow an interviewer to deviate from the topic in any way, or allow the participant to explain their answers. This limits the richness and depth of the data collected, and limits the range of information received as no unexpected details can be provided - Risk of social desirability bias

Answer 144

+ Flexibility - There is more flexibility in unstructured interviews, as the interviewer can follow up on questions as they arise, making it much more likely that they gain an insight into the worldview of the interviewee. The conversational nature of the conversation helps built a rapport between interviewer and interviewee, potentially building trust and so making the participant more likely to provide more unexpected, meaningful and personal information. They are more likely to be honest, increasing the validity of findings - Interviewer bias - The flexible, conversational nature of unstructured interviews may increase the liklehood of interviewer bias where the interviewers own expectations of the participant influence their interpretation of their responses. This is even more of a concern in UI's as the interviewer controls the direction of questioning, so may only ask questions that fit with their perception of the interviewee - Analysis of data is not straightforward - the interviewer may have to sort through vast amounts of irrelevant detail to get access to meaningful information. This can be time consuming and may make drawing meaningful conclusions difficult - Risk of social desirability bias

Answer 145

Questionnaires can be divided into open questions (for which there is no fixed choice of response) and closed questions (for which there is a fixed choice of responses). Closed questions can be further divided into three design types: Likert scales, Rating scales, and Fixed-choice options

Answer 146

Where the participant indicates their agreement or disagreement with a statement using a scale of 5 or so points. The scale may range from strongly agree to strongly disagree, for example, with strongly agree being 1, agree being 2, neutral being 3, disagree being 4 and strongly disagree being 5 About agreement

Answer 147

These scales function in a similar way to likert scales, but participants are asked to identify a value which represents their strength of feeling about a topic eg. How entertaining do you find zombie films Very entertaining 1 2 3 4 5 Not entertaining at all About strength of feeling

Answer 148

Include a list of possible options, and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them - tick all that apply questions eg. why do you watch zombie films And the options may be: . For entertainment . To be frightended . Because others like them . To be amused

Answer 149

Researchers may develop an interview schedule - a list of intended questions. Also, they need to consider whether they want to do a group interview or a 'one-on-one' interview. The way in which interviewers record data must also be considered, as well as ethics

Answer 150

An interview schedule is the list of questions the researcher intends to cover. It should be standardised to reduce the impacts of interviewer bias.

Answer 151

Interviewers may take notes during the interview, or the interview may be recorded and then analysed later

Answer 152

A group interview may be considered more appropriate for clinical settings. In the case of a one-to-one interview, the interview should be conducted in a quiet setting, away from other people, as this will increase the likelihood of the participant opening up. It is good to being the interview with neutral questions to make the interviewee feel relaxed and comfortable, enabling the interviewer to built a rapport

Answer 153

Interviewees should be repeatedly reminded that their answers will be treated with strict confidence, especially if the interview involves sensitive or personal topics

Answer 154

. Overuse of jargon - When creating lists of questions researchers should avoid using jargon - technical terms that are only familiar to those within a specialised field. . Emotive language and leading questions - Questions should not involve emotive terms which direct the participant to a certain response by making the 'correct' answer seem clear eg. boxing is barbaric and any sane person would want it banned. Also leading questions should be avoided eg. When did you last drive over the speed limit - assumes the participant has driven over the limit . Double-barreled questions and double negatives - Double-barreled questions which involve two questions in one should be avoided, as participants may agree with and respond to one part of the question, but not the other. Also, questions which include double-negatives should be avoided as they may be confusing and difficult for participants to decipher

Answer 155

A mathematical technique in which researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables. Correlations illustrate the strength and direction of an association. Correlations are plotted on a scattergram

Answer 156

Co-variables are the variables investigated within an investigation, such as height and weight. They differ from independent and dependent variables as researchers aim to investigate the association between variables, rather than attempting to show cause and effect.

Answer 157

. Positive correlation - As one co-variable increases, so does the other . Negative correlation - As one co-variable increases, the other decreases . Zero correlation - Where there is no relationship between variables

Answer 158

In an experiment the researcher manipulates or controls the independent variable in order to measure the effect on the dependent variable. As a result, it is possible to infer that the independent variable has caused any observed changes in the dependent variable In a correlation, there is no such manipulation of one variable, so cause and effect cannot be established. Even a strong positive correlation does not indicate causation

Answer 159

Correlations are a useful preliminary tool for research as they provide a precise and quantifiable measure of how two variables are related. This could suggest ideas for future research if the variables are strongly related or demonstrate an interesting pattern. Correlations are often used as a starting point for research, as they allow researchers to assess possible patterns between variables before fully committing to an experiment

Answer 160

Correlations are relatively quick and economical to carry out. There is no need to seek out and secure a controlled environment because no manipulation of variables is required. Secondary data can be used, making correlations less time consuming for researchers than experiments

Answer 161

The nature of correlations and their lack of experimental manipulation means they can tell us how variables are related, but not why. They cannot demonstrate cause and effect, so we do not know which co-variable causes the other to change - we cannot establish the direction of cause. This can lead to the misuse or misinterpretation of correlations

Answer 162

It may be the case that a third, untested variable is causing the relationship between the two variables being studied (an intervening variable). This is known as the third variable problem. This issue means correlations can be misused or misinterpreted, with one factor being seen as to blame for another when it isn't actually the case e.g. a poor home life leads to criminality. In fact, poverty may cause both a poor home life and criminality, but this is ignored and an incorrect assumption is made

Answer 163

A number between -1 and +1 which tells us the strength and direction of the relationship between two co-variables. A correlation coefficient is produced from a statistical test of correlation

Answer 164

A perfect positive correlation

Answer 165

A perfect negative correlation

Answer 166

The closer the coefficient is to +1 or -1, the stronger the relationship between co-variables. The closer it is to 0, the weaker the relationship. It is important to note that coefficients which indicate a weak correlation can still be statistically significant, depending on the size of the data set

Answer 167

Direction of relationship is shown by the sign before the number. A minus indicates a negative correlation, and a plus indicates a positive correlation. +0.5 is just as strong a relationship as -0.5. They just have different directions

Answer 168

Data that is expressed non-numerically - such as in words. It may take the form of a written description of the thoughts, feelings and observations of participants or researchers. An interview transcript, a diary extract and notes from a counselling session would all be considered qualitative data.

Answer 169

Methods concerned with the interpretation of language e.g. from an interview or unstructured observation

Answer 170

Data that is expressed numerically, data that can be counted. Quantitative data is open to being analysed statistically and can be easily converted into graphs or charts.

Answer 171

Methods that tend to involve gathering numerical data in the form of individual scores from participants e.g. how many words a person can recall in a memory experiment

Answer 172

+ Offers more richness of detail - qualitative data tends to be broader in scope and give the participant the opportunity to fully report their thoughts, feelings and opinions + Greater external validity - for the above reasons, it tends to provide a researcher with a more meaningful insight into a participants worldview - Often difficult to analyse - it is not summarised statistically, so patterns and comparisons within and between data may be hard to identify - Subjective - research tends to rely on the subjective interpretations of the researcher, which may be subject to bias

Answer 173

+ Simple to analyse - it is summarised statistically, so comparisons within and between data are easy to identify + Objective - data in numerical form tends to be more objective and therefore less prone to bias - Narrower in meaning and detail - therefore tends to lack external validity and may not be able to fully explain behaviours

Answer 174

Information that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purpose of the current investigation of that researcher. Such data arrives from the participant themselves, such as through an interview, questionnaire, observation or experiment. It is sometimes called field research.

Answer 175

Information that has already been collected by someone else, so predates the current research being done. Such data may be the work of other psychologists, or government research. It includes data from journal articles, books, websites, population records etc.. It is sometimes referred to as desk research, having often been subject to statistical testing - meaning the significance is already known

Answer 176

A form of research which involves combining the findings from a number of studies which have investigated the same aims or hypotheses. The results of these studies can then be pooled together and a conclusion drawn. In experimental research, where the independent variable has been measured in the same way, it is possible to perform a statistical analysis and calculate an effect size (the dependent variable of a meta-analysis) which gives an overall statistical measure of the difference or relationship between variables across a number of studies. It is a form of secondary data

Answer 177

+ Suitable for topic being studied - primary data is authentic data collected with focus upon a particular aim or hypothesis - therefore the research will be designed in a way that specifically targets the question the researcher requires - Time and effort - Collecting this data requires time, effort and potentially money. Conducting an experiment requires considerable planning, preparation and recourses. Whereas secondary data may have little-to-no cost for the researcher in terms of time, effort and money

Answer 178

+ Inexpensive and easily accessed - secondary data often requires minimal effort to access. Also, when analysing secondary data a researcher may find that existing research provides the desired information, so there is no need to conduct primary data collection - Quality - there may be substantial variation in the quality and accuracy of secondary data. Information may at first appear valuable, but on further investigation may be outdated or incomplete. The content of data may not meet researchers needs. This can challenge the validity of any conclusions drawn

Answer 179

+ Produces a larger, more varied sample - results can then be generalised across much larger populations, increasing population validity - Publication bias - Or the 'file-drawer' problem. The researcher may not select all relevant studies, choosing to leave out studies with results that challenge their hypotheses or are seen as non-significant. This means conclusions from meta-analysis may be biased as they only represent some of the relevant data

Answer 180

The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data. They include measures of central tendency

Answer 181

Measures of the average value in a set of data - they give us the most 'typical' value. Measures of central tendency include the mean, median and mode

Answer 182

The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values

Answer 183

+ It is the most sensitive of the measures of central tendency, as it includes all of the scores/values in the data set within the calculation. As such, it is more representative of the data as a whole - It is easily distorted by extreme values

Answer 184

The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest

Answer 185

+ It is not affected by extreme scores + Easy to calculate once the numbers are arranged in order - Less sensitive than the mean as the actual values of the lower and higher numbers are ignored. Any extreme values at these ends of the spectrum may actually be important

Answer 186

The most frequently occurring value in a set of data. Some data sets may have two modes (bi-modal), or have no mode.

Answer 187

+ Easy to calculate + For categorical, non-numerical data, the mode may be the only average you can use - the only way to find the average response is to identify the modal group - Crude measure - the most common value may be very different from the data sets mean and median, and may not represent the whole data set - When there are several modes in a data set, it may not be a particularly useful piece of information

Answer 188

Measures of the spread of/variation within a set of scores. They include the range and standard deviation

Answer 189

A calculation of the dispersion of a set of scores by taking the lowest value away from the highest one and (usually) adding 1 - the difference between the greatest and smallest score +1. Adding 1 is a mathematical correction which allows for the fact that raw scores are often rounded up or down

Answer 190

+ It is easy to calculate - It only takes into account the two most extreme values, so may be unrepresentative of the data set as a whole - it can be influenced by outliers - Doesn't indicate the spread of numbers - in the sense that it doesn't show if most numbers are closely grouped or spread out

Answer 191

A measure of dispersion in a set of scores which tells us how much, on average, each score deviates from the mean. It is a single value. The larger the standard deviation, the greater the dispersion or spread within a set of data. In terms of an experiment: - a large standard deviation - suggests not all participants were affected by the independent variable in the same way, because the data is widely spread. There may have been some anomalous results - a low standard deviation - reflects the fact that the data is clustered tightly around the mean, which implies all respondents reacted in a fairly similar way

Answer 192

+ More precise measure of dispersion than the range - this is because it includes all values within the final calculation - Shows how scores are grouped and spread out - However this means it can be distorted by an extreme value. Also, extreme values may not be revealed, as is the case for the range

Answer 193

Raw scores can be converted to descriptive statistics (e.g. mean and standard deviation), and then summarised in a table. Comments and conclusions are included in a summary paragraph below the table.

Answer 194

A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis. They do NOT depict differences - they depict associations between co-variables. One co-variable occupies the x axis and the other the y axis. Each point on the graph corresponds to the x and y position of the co-variables

Answer 195

A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars. Displaying data graphically allows the difference in mean values to be easily seen. Bar charts tend to be used when data is divided into categories - when it is discrete data. Bars are separate on bar charts to denote that we are dealing with two separate conditions

Answer 196

A type of graph which shows frequency, but unlike a bar chart the AREA of the bars represents frequency - not just the height. The x axis must start at a true zero. The bars touch eachother, indicating that the data is continuous. The x axis is made up of equal sized intervals of a single category, and the y axis represents the frequency within each interval

Answer 197

Graphs which present continuous data, and use connected points in a continuous line to show how something changes in value.

Answer 198

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell or hill shaped curve. Within a normal distribution, most people or items are located in the middle area of the curve, with very few people at the extreme ends. The mean, median and mode occupy the same midpoint of the curve. The tails of the curve never reach the x axis as more extreme scores are always, theoretically, possible.

Answer 199

A spread of frequency which is not symmetrical as the data clusters in one end - distributions lean towards one side or another. There are two types of skewed distribution: positive and negative

Answer 200

A type of frequency distribution where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph, resulting in a long tail of anomalous scores on the right. For example, in a difficult test most students score lowly, with only a handful of students at the higher end. This would produce a positive skew. In a positive skew, the mode remains at the highest point of the peak, then the median comes next. But the mean is dragged across towards the tail, as it is affected by extreme scores. However the median and mode do not include all scores when calculated, so are less affected by this

Answer 201

A type of frequency distribution in which most of the distribution is concentrated on the right, with a long tail of anomalous scores leading up to it on the left. This would occur for the results of a very easy test, where most takers score highly. The mean is pulled to the left, again because it is pulled across by the extreme scores on the lower, left side. The mode dissects the peak's highest point, and the median is in the middle of the two

Answer 202

(Number of participants who displayed a particular behaviour/total number of participants) x 100

Answer 203

Divide by 100 - or move the decimal point 2 points along

Answer 204

Count the number of decimal places in your decimal e.g. 0.81 has two If there are two decimal places, divide by 100 If there are three, divide by 1000 If there are four, divide by 10,000 and so on The fraction can be reduced by dividing by the highest common denominator

Answer 205

As a part-to-whole ratio - the number of participants who displayed a particular behaviour: the total number of participants. This can then be cancelled down Or as a part-to-part ratio - the number of participants who displayed a particular behaviour: the number of participants who displayed the alternative behaviour. This can then be cancelled down

Answer 206

Essentially rounding - to the nearest ten, hundred. When two numbers are subtracted to get the range, for example, you might not use the actual highest and lowest values +1, but the highest value rounded - the lowest value rounded +1

Answer 207

Move 5 decimal places to the right - so 350,000

Answer 208

The number between 1 and 10 in standard form

Answer 209

The little 'power of ten' numbers in standard form

Answer 210

A type of estimate, which involves using standard form and comparing the exponents. You can then say how many times bigger or smaller one number is than the other

Answer 211

Strict inequality - greater than

Answer 212

Strict inequality - less than

Answer 213

Inequality - much greater than

Answer 214

Inequality - much less than

Answer 215

A way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. By using statistical tests, we can find out whether differences or relationships between variables are meaningful - if there is a significant difference - or have occurred by chance.

Answer 216

A statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items in order to determine significance

Answer 217

1. We are looking for a DIFFERENCE 2. We have used a REPEATED MEASURES design 3. Our data is organised into categories - it is NOMINAL or can be converted into nominal data

Answer 218

The likelihood that certain events will occur

Answer 219

0.05 or 5% At this level the researcher decides that the findings are significant and rejects the null hypothesis

Answer 220

A researcher uses a 0.01 or 1% level when they need to more confident that findings are not due to coincidence or chance - such as in research that has a human cost e.g. drug trials, or where the research is one-off and there is no possibility that it can be repeated in the future

Answer 221

When a statistical test has been calculated (such as the sign test) the researcher is left with a number known as the calculated value. This is then compared with the critical value in order to decide whether the result is significant. Critical values for a sign test are given in a table of critical values

Answer 222

1. The significance level 2. The number of participants in the investigation (known as the N value or degrees of freedom - df) 3. Whether the hypothesis is directional and therefore the test is a one-tailed test, or non-directional and therefore a two-tailed test

Answer 223

The calculated value has to be equal to or lower than the critical value

Answer 224

1. Converting the data to nominal data by subtracting the score from one condition from the other. If the result of this subtraction is a negative number, we record a negative sign. If the result is a positive number, we record a positive sign. 2. Add up the number of pluses and the number of minuses 3. Take the less frequent sign as your S value - the number of times the sign appears is your calculated value of S 4. Compare your calculated S value to your critical value. If the calculated value is equal to or lower than the critical value, the result is significant

Answer 225

The assessment of a piece of scientific work by a small group of specialists - usually two or three experts - in that field, to ensure that any published research is of high quality. The experts should conduct an objective review and be unknown to the author or researcher. Peer reviews are beneficial in that they establish the validity and accuracy of a piece of research

Answer 226

. To allocate research funding - independent peer evaluation takes place to determine whether or not to award funding to a proposed research project. This may be coordinated by government organisations who have an interest in establishing projects that are worthwhile . To validate the quality and relevance of research - all elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy (i.e. the formulation of hypotheses, chosen methodology, statistical tests used, conclusions drawn) . To suggest amendments or improvements - reviewers may suggest minor revisions of the work in order to improve the report. In extreme circumstances, they may conclude that the work is innapropriate for publication and should be withdrawn

Answer 227

. Anonymity - Increases the likelihood of a more honest appraisal, but some reviewers may use their anonymity to unjustly criticise rival researchers - particularly because many researchers are in competition for limited research funding . Publication bias - Reviewers may tend to approve 'headline grabbing' research which will increase the credibility and circulation of their publication, or may prefer to publish only positive results (file-drawer problem). As such, research which does not meet this criteria is ignored or disregarded, creating a false impression of the current state of psychology . Burying groundbreaking research - The peer review process may suppress opposition to mainstream theories in order to maintain the status quo within particular scientific fields. Reviewers tend to be especially critical of research that contradicts their own view, and be much more favorable towards those that support it. As established scientists are the ones more likely to be chosen as reviewers, new and innovative research which challenges the established order in a field - one created in part by the established scientists in this field - is less likely to be passed. Peer reviews may slow the rate of progress and change in a particular scientific discipline

Answer 228

Refers to the question - How does what we learn from the findings of psychological research influence, affect, benefit or devalue the economy?

Answer 229

. Attachment research into the role of the father - if both fathers and mothers are capable of providing adequate emotional care necessary for healthy psychological development, as recent research suggests, this could promote more flexible working arrangements in the family. Mothers may work longer hours and couples may share childcare responsibilities equally. This means modern parents are better equipped to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy . Development of treatments for mental disorders - Absence from work costs the economy about £15 billion a year. A 2014 report suggests that 1/3 of all absences are caused by mild to moderate mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety and stress. Psychological research has led to the use of SSRI's for treating depression and OCD, and antianxiety drugs for stress conditions. As such, psychological research has helped people with mental disorders combat their symptoms effectively and return to work. It helps promote a mentally healthy workforce. As such, psychological research into mental disorders has significant economic benefit

Answer 230

Things such as graphs, tables and summary statistics like measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion. They are used to identify trends and to analyse sets of data

Answer 231

Refers to the use of statistical tests, which tell researchers whether the differences or relationships they have found are statistically significant or not. This allows them to determine what hypotheses to accept or reject. As a correlation coefficient is calculated from a statistical test, it is a type of inferential statistic

Answer 232

. Mann-Whitney . Wilcoxon

Answer 233

1. Data is put into a table of ranks. The lowest number has a rank of 1. In the case where two data items are the same, you add up the rank they would get and calculate the mean for those ranks e.g. if a rating of 12 had a frequency of 4 (rating of 12 given 4 times) to make up the rank of 7,8,9 and 10 in a study, you would do 7+8+9+10 and divide it by 4, giving them a rank of 8.5 2. Apply the calculated sum of ranks to the participants from condition A and B. For example, if participant 5 received a rating of 12, their rank would be 8.5 3. Calculate the sum of ranks - once the ranks for each participant have been assigned, the sum of ranks for Condition A is calculated by adding the individual ranks together. The same is done for Condition B 4. Identify the smaller sum of ranks - If Condition A has a sum of ranks of 65.5 and Condition B 105.5, Condition A has a smaller value. It is now known as Ua, and the number of participants (N) in Group A is known as Na). This is used to work out our calculated U value using the following formula: 5. Calculate the U value by doing: Ua - (Na(Na+1)/2) so if our total number of participants for condition A is 10: 10+1=11 11 x 10 = 110 110/2 = 55 65.5 - 55 = 10.5 So 10.5 is our U value 6. The calculated and critical values: Our calculated value of U is 10.5 Our critical value is identified using a critical table of values. To pick the correct value, we must identify if our test if one-tailed (directional hypothesis) or two-tailed (non-directional). Then, we look at the total number of participants for Condition A and for Condition B. Follow across from where the N value for each is located on the table to where they meet - this is your critical value If the calculated value of U is less than or equal to the critical value, the result is significant. We can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. The difference we are looking for in a Mann-Whitney test has been proved