Attachment - Paper 1 Flashcards

Question

What is a strength of Schaffer and Emerson's research - real world application?

Answer 1

The research has practical applications in situations such as day-care, where an infant is cared for by someone outside of the home. In asocial and indiscriminate stages the infant may be comfortable at day-care, accepting care from any skilled adult. However in the specific attachment stage - especially if the infant is starting day-care in this period - it could be problematic and anxiety-provoking. This means that Shaffer and Emerson's research is beneficial in the real world as it can help parents and children adapt to day-care more smoothly.

Answer 2

PROBLEMS WITH THE VALIDITY OF ASSESSMENT MEASURES - particularly in the asocial stage. The research is looking at infants, and young babies typically have poor coordination and are relatively immobile. If an infant in the asocial or indiscriminate stages - around 0-6 weeks to 7 months did experience stranger or separation anxiety, they would likely only be able to display this in subtle ways that are hard to observe, making it difficult for mothers to accurately notice and report these behaviours. As a result, infants in these early stages may actually be quite social, but flawed methodology makes it difficult for researchers to recognise this, and they appear asocial.

Answer 3

The study only looked at 60, working class families from Glasgow. As a result, while findings may reflect behaviours and developments typical to the sample, or even families and cultures similar to it (eg. individualist, western cultures) it is limited by its cultural and historical context. In collectivist cultures, for example, multiple attachments from an early age are the norm (Van Ijzendoorn 1993). As a result the study has limited population/ecological validity.

Answer 4

. Schaffer and Emerson (1964) . Grossmann et al. (2002) . Field (1978)

Answer 5

In only 3% of cases was the father the primary attachment figure, and in 27% was the father a joint primary attachment figure with the mother, showing the role of the father to be apparently less important than the mother. However 75% of babies studied did go on to form a secondary attachment with their father by the age of 18 months, showing that they do develop to take on a more important role in attachment.

Answer 6

Grossmann carried out a longitudinal study studying babies attachments into their teens. He found that the quality of infants attachments with their mothers - not their fathers - was related to attachments in adolescence, suggesting that the role of the father is less significant. However Grossmann also found that the quality of a fathers play with babies was related to the quality of adolescent attachment, suggesting that fathers take on a different but significant role - one more to do with play and stimulation than emotional development.

Answer 7

Field filmed 4 month old babies during face-to-face interactions with their caregivers : primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers, and primary caregiver fathers. She found that primary caregiver fathers behaved similarly to primary caregiver mothers, smiling, imitating and holding babies (all parts of interactional synchrony and reciprocity). This suggests that fathers have the potential to be the emotional development focused primary attachment figure, but this may only be when the primary caregiver role needs to be filled.

Answer 8

. GEIGER (1996) - Found that fathers play interactions were more exciting than mothers, which were more affectionate and nurturing - suggests fathers take on more of a playmate role. . HRDY (1999) - Found that fathers were less skilled at detecting low levels of infant distress than mothers - could support the biological explanation that the lack of oestrogen in men means fathers are not innately equipped to form close attachments. . BELSKY ET.AL (2009) - Found that males who reported higher levels of martial intimacy also displayed more secure-father infant attachment, suggesting that fathers can form secure attachments with their children, but this is dependent on the parents' relationship.

Answer 9

The research can be used to offer advice to parents. Research such as Field (1978) can be used to reassure mothers who may feel pressured to stay at home, fathers who feel pressured to work rather than spending time with children, or homosexual and single parent families as it reassures them that both fathers and mothers are capable of filling the roles necessary for healthy emotional development. This means parental anxiety about the role of the father can be reduced.

Answer 10

The question of the 'role of the father' in the context of attachment is complicated as different researchers are looking for different things : some researchers are interested in looking at the role of the father as secondary attachment figures (Grossmann et.al 2002) while others are more concerned with fathers as primary attachment figures. The former tend to see fathers as having a distinct role and behaviours from mothers, while he latter have found that fathers can take on a maternal role. This makes it difficult to provide a clear answer on the role of the father.

Answer 11

Findings tend to vary based on the methodology used. For example longitudinal studies eg. Grossmann et.al suggest that fathers have a separate, stimulating role affecting he child's later development. However if this was the case we would expect children in single parent or same sex families to turn out differently to children of nuclear families. However McCallum and Golombok (2004) consistently found that children in these family types do not develop differently. This means that the question of whether fathers have a distinctive role remains unanswered.

Answer 12

. THESE LINES OF RESEARCH MAY NOT BE IN CONFLICT - It could be that fathers typically take on distinctive roles in a two-parent heterosexual family, but that single mother/homosexual families parents simply adapt to accommodate the role played by fathers. This clarifies the question of whether fathers have a distinct role - when present, fathers take on a distinct role, but families can adapt to not having a father.

Answer 13

Preconceptions about how fathers should behave based on stereotypical accounts and images of parental behaviour may cause unintentional observer bias, where observers 'see' what they expect, rather than recording objective reality.

Answer 14

Lorenz (1952) and Harlow (1958)

Answer 15

To investigate the mechanisms of imprinting to see if animals would imprint on the first moving object they had seen.

Answer 16

Lorenz set up a classic experiment, involving a clutch of goose eggs. Half of the eggs hatched with their mother in their natural environment, while the other half were kept in an incubator where Lorenz was the first moving object they saw. In one test, he tagged the goslings depending on whether they were the incubator or control group and placed them under an upturned box. He then removed the box and recorded their behaviour.

Answer 17

The incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere, while the control group followed their mother. In the box experiment, the incubator group ran straight to Lorenz, while the control group ran to their mother. Lorenz identified a critical period of around 12-17 hours after hatching. If animals do not imprint during this time, they would be unable to form an attachment later.

Answer 18

Lorenz observed that birds who imprinted on humans exhibited courtship behaviour toward humans later in life. He described a case study involving a peacock raised in a reptile house. The first moving animal the peacock had seen were giant tortoises. As an adult, the bird would only direct courtship behaviour toward giant tortoises. Lorenz concluded that this meant the bird had undergone sexual imprinting.

Answer 19

The biological tendency of infants to form an attachment to the first subject they see after birth/hatching.

Answer 20

To study the bond between Rhesus monkeys and their mothers in order to investigate attachment.

Answer 21

Harlow reared 16 Rhesus monkeys, separated from their mothers within hours of birth, alongside 2 'surrogate' mothers. One was a wire mother, which provided food, while the other was wrapped in soft cloth and provided no food. In a second condition, the roles of the mothers were switched, so that the cloth covered mother dispensed milk. Harlow tested the monkeys reaction when they were afraid (by setting off a noisy mechanical teddy bear) . Harlow also reared some monkeys in complete isolation for up to a year (depending on the individual monkey) then reintroduced them to their species.

Answer 22

. In both of the conditions involving a surrogate mother, the monkeys preferred the cloth mother, even when it didn't dispense milk. .They sought comfort from it when frightened and even clung onto it while reaching for the wire mother to get food. .This showed that 'contact comfort' was more important to the monkeys than food when it came to attachment behaviour. .The monkeys raised in complete isolation often died, but tended to survive more if given a soft cloth to cuddle . Harlow followed the monkeys into adulthood and found that maternal deprivation had severe effects, with the monkeys raised without any form of mother being the most dysfunctional. . All deprived monkeys were more timid than normal monkeys. They struggled to socialise and find mates. When they did succeed in mating, they often neglected and attacked their young, even killing them in some cases. . Harlow established that there was a critical period of 90 days for monkeys. If not introduced to a mother figure in this time, it would be impossible to form an attachment and damage done by early deprivation was irreversible.

Answer 23

There is evidence to support the concept of imprinting. For example, Regolin and Vallortigara (1995) studied chicks who were introduced simple shape combinations that moved. When shown their first shape combination, along with others, they followed the one closest to theirs. This supports the view that animals are born with an innate mechanism to imprint on a moving object in the critical period of development, strengthening Lorenz's theory.

Answer 24

It is difficult to generalise. findings from animals to humans as the mammalian attachment system is more complex than that of birds (example - Schaffer and Emerson's findings, two way attachment system). In turn, it is difficult to draw conclusions from this study and generalise them to humans.

Answer 25

Later research has led to questions about the conclusions Lorenz made based on his studies. For example, Guiton (1966) found that chicks who imprinted on yellow washing up gloves tried to mate with them as adults, true to Harlow's sexual imprinting theory. However, with experience, they learned to mate with their own kind. This suggests that the effects of imprinting are not as long-lasting or irreversible as Lorenz suggested.

Answer 26

The findings drawn from Harlow's study can be useful in areas such as social work, clinical psychology etc., as it has helped professionals in these fields understand the importance of bonding in development and as a result to intervene in order to prevent poor outcomes (Howe 1998). It has also been beneficial in zoos and breeding programs in terms of realising the importance of attachment figures in monkeys and other animals. This means Harlow's research has practical value, as well as theoretical.

Answer 27

While rhesus monkeys are more similar to humans than Lorenz's geese as mammals, the human brain is still more complex than that of monkeys ( Schaffer and Emerson, two way system). As such, it could be seen as inappropriate to generalise conclusions to humans, limiting the applicability of the study.

Answer 28

If Rhesus monkeys are similar enough to humans for us to generalise the research findings, it can also be argued that their suffering was human like. Harlow himself even admitted that he was aware of the suffering caused - he referred to the wire mothers as 'iron maidens' (torture device).

Answer 29

However it can be argued that the importance of the research findings justifies the procedures

Answer 30

Dollard and Miller (1950)

Answer 31

. The idea that attachment is a learned behavior, acquired through classical and operant conditioning. . It is a nurture theory, as it suggests behavior is learned rather than being innate. . It places emphasis on the importance of food (sometimes called the cupboard love theory) as it emphasises the importance of the attachment figure as the provider of food - children learn to love whoever feeds them.

Answer 32

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Learning through the association of two stimuli. In the case of attachment, food serves as an unconditioned stimulus --- it produces the unconditioned response of pleasure. A caregiver begins as a neutral stimulus (it doesn't produce a response). Over time as the caregiver feeds the child, they become associated with the UCS of food. When the baby sees this person, they expect food - the caregiver is now a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response of pleasure.

Answer 33

OPERANT CONDITIONING - Learning through the consequences of behaviour. In the case of attachment, this explains why babies cry for comfort. Crying leads to a response from the caregiver, such as feeding. So long as the caregiver responds correctly, the crying is positively reinforced - it is rewarded. Simultaneously, the caregiver is negatively reinforced, as responding to the crying correctly stops something unpleasant (crying) happening. The reinforcement is a two way process, and the interplay of mutual reinforcements strengthens attachments.

Answer 34

As well as conditioning, drive reduction is also important for attachment. Hunger can be thought of as a primary drive - it is an innate, biological motivator, and we are motivated to eat in order to reduce the drive. Sears et.al (1957) suggested that as caregivers provide food, the primary drive of hunger becomes generalised to them. Attachment is thus a secondary motivator, learned by association of the caregiver and the satisfaction of a primary drive.

Answer 35

While it seems unlikely that association with food plays a central role in forming attachments, elements of conditioning could still be involved. Eg. a baby may associate feeling warm and comfortable with the presence of a particular adult, which may influence their choice of main attachment figure. As such, learning theory can still be useful in explaining attachments.

Answer 36

Both conditioning explanations see the baby as playing a PASSIVE ROLE in the formation of attachments, responding to associations unconsciously. However research (Feldman and Eidelman, 2007) shows that babies take an active role in the interactions involved in attachment. This means conditioning may not be an adequate explanation of any aspect of attachment.

Answer 37

For example, Lorenz's geese imprinted on the first moving object they saw, regardless of association with food, and when given a choice Harlow's monkeys preferred the soft cloth mother who provided comfort over the wire mother who dispensed food. This shows that factors other than association with food -eg. contact comfort - are important in the formation of attachments.

Answer 38

Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that babies tended to form their primary attachment to their mother, regardless of whether she was the one who usually fed them. Also, Isabella et.al (1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony resulted in better quality attachment - not feeding. This suggests that food is not the main factor in the formation of attachments, reducing the validity of the theory.

Answer 39

Hay and Vespo (1988) suggest that parents teach their children to love them through 'modelling' behaviours eg. hugging them and family members. Loving behaviour is also reinforced by showing approval when babies display their own attachment behaviours. The social learning perspective suggests that babies have learned attachment behaviours as a result of two way interactions, fitting better with research on interactional synchrony and reciprocity. However it could be said that drive reduction theory also incorporates elements of this

Answer 40

Bowlby (1988)

Answer 41

. Bowlby rejected the learning theory of attachment and instead proposed an evolutionary explanation - that attachment was an innate system that provided a survival advantage. . He placed emphasis on the child's attachment to one particular caregiver - typically the mother - and said children had an innate need to attach to one main figure, with all other attachments coming in a hierarchy below this. . Bowlby said the more time spent with the attachment figure, the better. He proposed two principles to clarify this : . The Law of Continuity . The Law of Accumulated Separation

Answer 42

States that the more constant, stable and predictable the care shown to an infant is, the better their quality of attachment.

Answer 43

States that the effects of all separations (from the mother) add up, so the safest dose is therefore a 'zero dose' (Bowlby 1975)

Answer 44

He suggested that babies are born with a set of innate, 'cute behaviours' eg. smiling, cooing, which encourages attention from adults. He called these social releasers as their purpose is to invite social interaction with adults and cause them to attach to the baby. Bowlby recognised that attachment was a reciprocal process, with both mother and baby hardwired to form attachments.

Answer 45

He said the interplay between adult and baby attachment systems responsible for forming attachments begins in the early weeks of life. Bowlby proposed a critical period of around 6 months where the infant attachment system is active. He said a child was maximally sensitive at around 6 months, though a 'sensitive period' exists until around 2 years. If an attachment is not formed in this time, the child will find it much harder to form one later. Bowlby claimed that 'mothering' was almost useless if delayed until after around 2.5-3 years. If delayed until after this time, the child could face long term cognitive, social and emotional difficulties.

Answer 46

The Internal Working Model (Bowlby 1969) is a model for what attachments and relationships look like, based on the mental representation formed by a child of their relationship with their primary attachment figure. The social and emotional responses provided by the primary attachment figure provide information about the world and other people, influencing the how the child/adult views themselves, the extent to which they perceive themselves to be worthy of love, how reliable they think other people are etc.. The IWM forms the basis for the individuals attachment style, and can even affect the ability of the child to be a parent themselves.

Answer 47

There is clear evidence that cute baby behaviours are designed to elicit interactions from caregivers. Brazelton et.al (1975) observed babies triggering interactions from adults using social releasers. The researchers then instructed the primary attachment figures to ignore the babies' social releasers. In response, the babies became increasingly distressed, with some even curling up and lying motionless. This illustrates the importance of social releasers in emotional development and the formation of attachments.

Answer 48

The idea that the internal working model predicts attachment patterns from one generation to the next is supported by Bailey et al. (2007). In this study, researchers assessed relationships in 99 mothers and their one year olds. They also measured the mothers relationships with their own primary attachment figures, and found that mothers with poor attachments to their own mothers were more likely to have poorly attached babies. This supports Bowlby's idea that early attachments influence individuals later attachment types and their ability to parent.

Answer 49

. IGNORES INFLUENCE OF OTHER FACTORS - Other factors, such as genetic differences in anxiety and sociability can affect social behaviour in both babies and adults, which can cause generational patterns and affect parenting ability (Kornienko 2016). This means Bowlby may have overstated the importance of the internal working model in social behaviour and parenting, at the expense of other factors.

Answer 50

There are concerns that the theory of monotropy lacks validity. For example Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that while most babies (73%) did attach to one individual first, most babies had formed multiple attachments by 12 months, and 27% formed multiple attachments immediately, rather than having an individual primary attachment figure. While the first attachment does have a strong impact on later behaviour, this could simply mean that it is stronger than other attachments, rather than being different in quality. Other attachments to family members all provide the similar key qualities of emotional support, a safe base. This means that the emphasis Bowlby places on monotropy and the 'uniqueness' of one attachment is misplaced.

Answer 51

Bowlby's monotropic theory can be seen as causing feminist concerns and as having social implications. This is as the laws of continuity and accumulated separation suggests working mothers can seriously damage their child's emotional development. Burman (1994) argues that this sets up mothers to take the blame for any emotional problems the child may experience in the future, and gives people an excuse to restrict women's ability to work

Answer 52

To be able to observe key attachment behaviours as a means of assessing the quality of a babies attachment to a caregiver.

Answer 53

The Strange Situation was a controlled observation procedure, taking place in a room (controlled conditions - lab study) with a two way mirror or cameras allowing researchers to observe attachment behaviour. Behaviours used to judge attachments included : - Proximity seeking - Looking to be close to the caregiver - Exploration and secure base behaviour - Good attachment enables a baby to feel confident to explore, while using their caregiver as a secure point to return to - Stranger anxiety - Infants display anxiety when a stranger enters the room eg. crying, staring - Separation anxiety - Infants protest and display anxiety when the attachment figure leaves the room - Response to reunion - Infants greet the caregivers return with pleasure, seeking and accepting comfort The procedure involved 7 episodes, lasting 3 minutes each, designed to explore each behaviour

Answer 54

Caregiver and infant enter the room 1 - BABY IS ENCOURAGED TO EXPLORE - Tests exploration and secure base behaviour 2 - STRANGER ENTERS THE ROOM AND APPROACHES - Tests stranger anxiety 3 - CAREGIVER LEAVES THE ROOM - Tests stranger and separation anxiety 4 - CAREGIVER RETURNS AND THE STRANGER LEAVES - Tests response to reunion and exploration/secure base behaviour 5 - CAREGIVER LEAVES THE BABY ALONE - Tests separation anxiety 6 - STRANGER RETURNS - Tests stranger anxiety 7 - CAREGIVER RETURNS AND IS REUNITED WITH THE BABY - Tests response to reunion

Answer 55

Ainsworth et.al (1978) used findings from the strange situation to identify 3 distinct types of attachment: . Secure attachment - (Type B) - 60-75% of British babies . Insecure avoidant attachment - (Type A) - 20-25% of British babies . Insecure resistant attachment - (Type C) - 3% of British babies

Answer 56

. The most desirable type of attachment, associated with psychologically healthy outcomes . Securely attached babies explore happily, but regularly go back to their caregiver (proximity seeking, secure base behaviour). They usually show moderate separation distress and moderate stranger anxiety. Securely attached babies require and accept comfort from the caregiver at the reunion stage.

Answer 57

. Characterised by low anxiety but weak attachment . Insecure-avoidant babies explore freely, but do not seek proximity or show secure base behaviour. They have little or no reaction when the caregiver leaves and display minimal stranger anxiety. They do not seem to require comfort when the caregiver returns and may even avoid contact.

Answer 58

. Characterised by strong attachment and high anxiety . Insecure - resistant babies seek greater proximity than others, and so explore less. They show high levels of stranger and separation anxiety, but resist comfort when reunited with their caregiver.

Answer 59

Bick et.al (2012) tested inter-rater reliability for the Strange situation for a team of trained observers and found agreement on attachment type in 94% of cases. This high level of reliability may be because the procedure takes place under controlled conditions behaviours such as proximity seeking and stranger anxiety involve large, visible movements and are therefore easy to observe eg. anxious babies cry, crawl away from strangers. This means we can be confident that the attachment types assessed by the strange situation are not limited by subjective judgements.

Answer 60

The strange situation can be used to predict a number of aspects of the babies later development. A large body of research shows that securely attached toddler and babies tend to have better outcomes in childhood and adulthood, eg. better achievement in school, less involvement in bullying (Kokkinos 2007), less adult mental health problems (Ward et.al 2006). Meanwhile babies assessed as having insecure - resistant attachments tend to have the worst outcomes. This suggests that the strange situation measures something real and meaningful in a baby's development.

Answer 61

. MAY NOT MEASURE ATTACHMENT - While the Strange Situation does measure something important associated with later development, not all psychologists believe this is something in attachment. Kagan (1982) suggested that genetically - influenced anxiety levels could account for variations in attachment behaviour in the Strange situation and later development. This means that the strange situation may not actually measure attachment.

Answer 62

One limitation is that the strange situation may not be a valid measure of attachment in different cultural contexts. The study was developed in the UK and USA, and as a result may only be useful in western cultures (eg. USA, Europe). Babies may have different experiences in different cultures, and these experiences may affect their responses to the strange situation. Eg. Takahashi (1986) studied Japanese babies and found that these babies developed high levels of stranger anxiety, and so a disproportionate number were classified as insecure - resistant. Takahashi (1990) suggests that this anxiety response was not due to high rates of attachment insecurity, but due to the culture in Japan where mother-infant separation if rare. This means that it is difficult to know what the strange situation is measuring when outside of Europe and the USA.

Answer 63

Main and Solomon (1986) identified a fourth attachment type - Disorganised Attachment (Type D) - which is a mix of resistant and avoidant behaviours. The strange situation does not account for children who fit in this category, reducing the generalisability of validity of Ainsworth's findings and conclusions.

Answer 64

However type D babies have typically experienced extreme neglect and abuse and are therefore unusual when compared to the general population, and as a result Ainsworth's classifications still have value in that they can be used to identify the attachments of the general population.

Answer 65

The differences in norms and values that exist between people in different groups

Answer 66

To look at the proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachments across a range of cultures in order to assess cultural variation. They also looked at differences within countries.

Answer 67

Researchers conducted a meta-analysis (results were combined and analysed together) involving 32 studies of attachment where the Strange Situation had been used. The studies were from across 8 countries, with 15 of the studies being from the USA. Results were yielded from 1990 children.

Answer 68

. In all countries a secure attachment type was the most common . However proportions of secure attachment varied from country to country - 75% in Britain vs 50% in China . In individualist cultures, proportions of insecure-resistant children was similar to Ainsworth's original findings (all under 14%) but this was not true for collectivist cultures such as Japan, China and Israel, where rates were above 25% . In Individualist cultures, there were more insecure-avoidant children than insecure-resistant. In collectivist cultures, this was reversed. . Variations between findings within countries was greater than variations between countries - 150% greater, eg. in the USA one study found 90% of babies were securely attached, another found 46% . WEST GERMANY : 57% secure, 35% insecure-avoidant, 9% insecure-resistant . JAPAN - 50% secure, 5% insecure-avoidant, 27% insecure - resistant . BRITAIN - 75% secure, 22% insecure-avoidant, 3% insecure-resistant

Answer 69

. Simonelli et.al (2014) . Jin et.al (2012)

Answer 70

Conducted a study in Italy to see whether the proportions of babies with different attachment types still matches those found in previous studies. They assessed 76 babies aged 12 months using the Strange situation. They found 50% were secure and 36% insecure - avoidant. This was a lower rate of secure attachment and a higher rate of insecure - avoidant attachment than found in many other studies. Simonelli et.al suggested that this was because of the increasing number of mothers of young children working long hours and using professional healthcare. This suggests that attachment patterns are not static, but vary in response to cultural change

Answer 71

Conducted a study to compare the proportions of attachment types in Korea compared to other countries. The strange situation was used to assess 87 babies. The overall proportions of insecure and secure babies were similar to those in other countries, with most babies being secure. However there was a greater proportion of insecure resistant babies, with only 1 being insecure avoidant. This is similar to distributions in Japan found by Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988). Since Japan and Korea have similar child rearing styles, these similarities may be explained by this.

Answer 72

. Secure attachment seems to be the norm in a wide range of cultures, supporting Bowlby's idea that attachment is innate and universal . However it is clear that cultural practices have an impact on attachment type

Answer 73

. INDIGENOUS RESEARCHERS - Indigenous researchers are those from the same cultural backgrounds as the participants eg. In their meta-analysis Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg included research from Grossmann et.al (1981), a German team. This means problems with cross-cultural research - such as researchers misunderstanding of the language used by participants, difficulty communicating instructions, or biases about other cultures - are avoided. This means there is a far better chance that researchers and participants communicated successfully, enhancing the validity of data collected.

Answer 74

Studies conducted in different countries aren't typically matched for methodology when compared in meta-analysis'. Characteristics such as social class, poverty, age of participants can all confound variables. Environmental variables can also differ between studies, confounding results eg. availability of toys in a room could cause babies to explore more, and less visible proximity seeking can cause babies to be classed as insecure-avoidant. This could reduce the internal validity of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta analysis, and mean that looking at attachment behaviour in non-matched studies may not actually tell us anything about cultural variations in attachment.

Answer 75

Trying to impose a test designed for one cultural context to another can also limit the research. Cross cultural psychology includes the idea of emic (cultural uniqueness) and etic (cross-cultural uniqueness). Imposed etic occurs when we assume that an idea or technique that works in one culture will work in another eg. In the Strange Situation for countries such as GB or USA, lack of affection of reunion can indicate an insecure-avoidant attachment. However in Germany such behaviour is more likely to be seen as independence rather than insecurity. Behaviours measured by the strange situation may not have the same meaning in different cultural contexts, and comparing them across cultures is meaningless.

Answer 76

Bowlby explained cultural similarities in attachment types by stating that attachment was innate and therefore universal. However Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg argued against this, saying that global media presents a typical picture of how parents and babies are supposed to behave, which may override cultural differences in child-rearing.

Answer 77

The long-term social and emotional difficulties that arise as a result of the continual attachment disruption between the infant and primary caregiver (mother) where there is no adequate substitute emotional care.

Answer 78

. Separation refers to not being in the presence of the primary caregiver. This is not problematic unless the child is deprived of emotional care. Brief separations, especially where the child is with a substitute caregiver, are not significant for development. However extended separations can lead to deprivation.

Answer 79

The first 2.5 years of an infants life If a child is deprived of suitable emotional care for an extended time in this period, psychological damage is inevitable. However Bowlby also pointed out that there was a continuing risk of psychological harm up until the age of 5

Answer 80

. Impact on intellectual development - Bowlby argued that children who had experienced maternal deprivation would experience delayed intellectual development, characterized by abnormally low IQ's. Goldfarb (1947) found children who had remained in institutions how lower IQ's than those who were fostered and had therefore experienced a higher standard of emotional care . Impact on emotional development - Maternal deprivation also increased the likelihood of children developing affectionless psychopathy. Bowlby described this as an inability to experience guilt or strong emotions toward others, which makes them incapable of developing fulfilling relationships. It is also associated with criminality, as AP's cant appreciate the feelings of their victims, so can't empathise with them or feel remorse.

Answer 81

To investigate the long term effects of maternal deprivation, examining the link between deprivation and affectionless psychopathy

Answer 82

. An opportunity sample of 88 children was selected from the clinic where Bowlby worked . 44 juvenile thieves (31 boys,13 girls) who had been referred after being accused of stealing and and were used, along with a control group of 44 children who had been referred due to emotional problems but hadn't committed any crime. The groups were matched for age and IQ (matched pair design) . All participants were interviewed in order to test for affectionless psychopathy. Their IQ's were also measured, and their emotional responses to the tests were recorded. Parents were also interviewed in order to establish whether there had been periods of prolonged separation in the participants early lives . Interviewers were Bowlby, a psychologist, and social worker, who all made separate reports

Answer 83

. 14 of the 44 thieves were identified as affectionless psychopaths. Of these, 12 had experienced prolonged separation of more than 6 months from their mothers in their first 2 years. . Only 5 of the 30 remaining children not classified as affectionless psychopaths had experienced prolonged separation in the critical period . Only 2 of the 44 children in the control group had experienced prolonged separation . Bowlby concluded that prolonged deprivation/separation caused permanent emotional damage - affectionless psychopathy

Answer 84

A limitation of the theory of maternal deprivation is that it is based on poor quality evidence. Bowlby's 44 thieves study was carried out by Bowlby himself - he was involved in both the family interviews and assessments - which left him open to bias, as he knew in advance which individuals he expected to show signs of affectionless psychopathy, based on past dealings with them. Also, Bowlby was influenced by Goldfarb (1943) who researched the development of children in wartime orphanages. However this study has problems with confounding variables, as children in this study had experienced early trauma and institutional care, as well as prolonged separation from early caregivers. This means the evidence the theory is based on is flawed, reducing its reliability.

Answer 85

MODERN EVIDENCE ---- Levy et.al (2003) showed that separating baby rats from their mother for as little as a day had a permanent effect on their social development. Although Bowlby relied on flawed research when creating his theory, there are other sources of evidence available that support his ideas

Answer 86

A further limitation is Bowlby's confusion between different types of early experience. Rutter (1981) drew a key distinction between types of early experience, stating that deprivation strictly occurs after the loss of the primary attachment figure once an attachment has already formed, while privation is the failure to form any attachment in the first place. Rutter said that the severe long term damage Bowlby associated with deprivation was actually more likely to be a result of privation, so the children studied by Goldfarb and Bowlby may actually have been 'prived' rather than deprived. Bowlby may have overestimated the importance of deprivation in children's development, reducing the validity of his theory

Answer 87

A further limitation is Bowlby's idea of a critical period. Bowlby said damage was inevitable if the child didn't form an attachment in the first 2.5 years of life, however there is evidence to suggest that good aftercare can prevent most/all of this damage. Koluchova (1976) looked at Czech twins who had experienced severe physical and emotional abuse from the age of 18 months till the age of 7. They experienced excellent care after the experience, and despite being emotionally damaged from the abuse, they had recovered fully by their teens. This means that lasting damage is not inevitable even in cases of severe privation, so the critical period is actually more of a sensitive period.

Answer 88

Most later attempts to replicate the 44 thieves study failed to produce similar results eg. Lewis (1954) looked at 500 young people and found no association between early separation and later psychopathy. However later evidence such as Gao et.al (2010) has partially supported Bowlby's findings, showing that poor quality maternal care was associated with high rates of psychopathy in adults.

Answer 89

The effects of institutional care, specifically on the attachment and emotional development of children raised in institutions

Answer 90

Attempts to increase the size of the population through banning abortion and encouraging larger families resulted in parents being unable to care for their children. Children were then put in overcrowded state orphanages, often spending days alone in cribs with minimal stimulation and care. After the 1989 Romanian revolution many of the children were adopted

Answer 91

To assess the extent to which good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions

Answer 92

. Researchers followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted by UK families in a longitudinal study . 111 had been adopted before the age of 2 while 54 had been adopted before the age of 4 . The researchers also used a control group of 52 British children adopted before the age of 6 months for comparison . The children's physical, cognitive and emotional development was tested at ages 4,6,11, 15 and 22-25. Info was also collected from interviews with parents and teachers

Answer 93

. At the time of adoption, the Romanian orphans were behind their British counterparts in terms of physical, social and cognitive development - they were smaller, weighed less, and showed signs of delayed intellectual development. . By the age of 11, the adopted children showed rates of recovery related to their age of adoption - those adopted before 6 months had a mean IQ of 102, those adopted between 6 months - 2 years had a mean IQ of 86, and those adopted after 2 years had a mean IQ of 77. These differences remained at age 16 (Beckett et.al 2010) . ADHD was more common in 15 and 22-25 year old samples (Kennedy et.al 2016) . Children adopted after 6 months showed signs of disinhibited attachment - such as attention seeking, clinginess, and similar social behaviour directed at both familiar and unfamiliar adults. This was far rarer in children adopted before 6 months . Shows that there is a sensitive period in attachment and that failure to form an attachment can have long-lasting effects, however these may be less severe if children are adopted earlier and are able to form attachments.

Answer 94

To assess attachment in institutionalised children and see the effects of institutionalisation in later life

Answer 95

. Assessed attachment in 95 Romanian children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their lives in institutional care (90% on average) . They were compared to a control group of 50 children who had never lived in an institution . Attachment type was measured using the strange situation and interviews with carers who were asked about unusual social behaviour eg. clinginess, attention seeking behaviour directed at all adults (sign of disinhibited attachment)

Answer 96

. 74% of the control group were classified at securely attached vs 19% of the institutionalised group . 44% of institutionalised children fit the description of having a disinhibited attachment vs less than 20% of the control group

Answer 97

. Disinhibited attachment - Where children are equally friendly and affectionate to both familiar and unfamiliar adults. Rutter (2006) explained this by suggesting that disinhibited attachment was an adaptation to living with multiple caregivers during the sensitive period of attachment formation- in institutions such as those in Romania, children may have 50 carers but not spend enough time with any of them to form a secure attachment . Intellectual disability - Having an abnormally low IQ. In Rutter's study most children showed signs of having an intellectual disability when they arrived in the UK, but most of those adopted before 6 months caught up to the control group by the age of 4. Like emotional development, damage to intellectual development can apparently be recovered if adopted before the age of 6 months.

Answer 98

The studies can be used to improve conditions growing up in institutional care/outside the family home. The studies have improved understanding of the effects of early institutional care, and how to prevent these. This has led to improvements in conditions experienced by children raised in care eg. homes now avoid having a large number of caregivers for each child, instead providing one or two 'key' workers to support their emotional care. Institutional care is also seen as a less desirable option, so considerable effort is made to accommodate children and put them in foster care/adoption.

Answer 99

A strength of the studies is a lack of confounding variables, unusual in orphan studies as many previous ones (eg.WW2 orphans) involved children who had experienced past trauma. It is difficult to disentangle the effects of neglect, abuse, bereavement from those of institutional care. However the children in Romanian orphan studies had for the most part been handed over by loving parents who had been unable to raise them, and had been raised in these environments from an early age so couldn't remember being separated. As a result findings were less likely to be confounded by other negative early experiences, increasing the internal validity of the study.

Answer 100

There could be confounding variables in the sense that the quality of care in the institutions was remarkably poor, with children receiving little to no intellectual stimulation or comfort. As a result, recorded effects may be due to poor quality institutional care, rather than institutional care as a whole. This means the studies introduce different confounding variables.

Answer 101

There is currently a lack of adult data for Romanian orphan studies, with the latest data looking at the children in their early-mid 20's. As a result, there is not sufficient data to answer questions about long term effects of institutional care fully eg. participants success in forming long term romantic relationships, maintaining parental relationships etc. Due to the longitudinal design of the study - following the same participants over an extended period of time - it will take a long time to gather this data. As a result, definitive conclusions about the long term effects of institutionalisation cannot be made - it is possible that late-adopted children may catch up, for example.

Answer 102

The studies are socially sensitive as they show that late-adopted children typically have poor developmental outcomes. Results have been published as participants grew up, so parents, teachers ect. may have lowered their expectations of the children and treated them differently. This could create self - fulfilling prophecies and inhibit the children's ability to develop past any effects of institutionalisation.

Answer 103

. A baby's first relationship with their primary attachment figure leads to the development of a metal template for what future relationships should look like (an internal working model). A baby whose first relationship is loving and reliable will go on to seek out functional relationships and behave functionally within them. . Securely attached babies tend to go on to form the best quality childhood attachments, whereas insecurely attached babies later have friendship difficulties (Kerns 1994) . Bullying behaviour can be predicted by attachment type. Wilson and Smith (1998) assessed attachment type and bullying involvement, using standard questionnaires to assess 196 London children aged 7-11 . They found that secure children were unlikely to be involved in bullying, insecure-avoidant children were most likely to be victims, and insecure-resistant children were most likely to be bullies

Answer 104

. A baby's first relationship with their primary attachment figure leads to the development of a metal template for what future relationships should look like (an internal working model). A baby whose first relationship is loving and reliable will go on to seek out functional relationships and behave functionally within them. . Securely attached babies tend to go on to form the best quality childhood attachments, whereas insecurely attached babies later have friendship difficulties (Kerns 1994) . Bullying behaviour can be predicted by attachment type. Wilson and Smith (1998) assessed attachment type and bullying involvement, using standard questionnaires to assess 196 London children aged 7-11 . They found that secure children were unlikely to be involved in bullying, insecure-avoidant children were most likely to be victims, and insecure-resistant children were most likely to be bullies

Answer 105

A persons internal working model affects two major kinds of adult relationships : romantic relationships, and parental relationships with their own children. . ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS - Hazan and Shaver (1987) studied romantic relationships based on the 'continuity hypothesis', which suggests that childhood relationships with caregivers forecasts adult relationships. . PARENTAL RELATIONSHIPS - People tend to base their parenting style on their internal working model, so attachment types tend to be passed on through generations

Answer 106

. Hazan and Shaver (1987) analysed 620 participants (205 men and 415 women) aged between 14-82 in a love quiz from a local newspaper ad. 42% were married and 31% were dating someone. The quiz assessed respondents current or most important relationship, general love experiences ect. They used it to categorise participants childhood attachment styles based on Ainsworth's categories. . They found that 56% of participants were securely attached, 25% insecure-avoidant and 19% insecure-resistant. Secure participants were more likely to have balanced, long-lasting relationships, insecure-avoidants avoided closeness and believed love was unnecessary for happiness, and insecure-resistants saw love as a compulsive commitment and feared abandonment.

Answer 107

Bailey (2007) - studied the attachments of 99 mothers with their babies and their own mothers. Mother-baby attachment was assessed with the strange situation, and mother-mother attachment was assessed in an interview. The majority of women had the same attachment classification to both their own babies and their mothers

Answer 108

A strength of the research is that it is supported by evidence. Reviews of studies linking attachment to later development (eg. Fearon and Roisman 2017) has shown that early attachment consistently predicts later attachment and emotional well-being. The strength of the relationship between early attachment type and later development depends on the attachment type and the aspect of later development eg. insecure-avoidant attachment results in mild developmental disadvantages, while disorganized attachment is strongly associated with later mental disorder. The amount of consistent research findings increases the reliability of the idea that early attachments influence later ones, increasing the predictive validity of studies and assessments working based on this idea.

Answer 109

NOT ALL EVIDENCE SUPPORTS THIS IDEA ---- Becker-Stoll et.al (2008) followed 43 individuals from the age of 1. Attachment was assessed at age 16, and no evidence of continuity was found. As a result, it is not clear how far the quality of early attachments influences later development.

Answer 110

Research into the influence of attachment on later relationships often looks at early attachments retrospectively. However asking adults/adolescents about questions about their relationship with their caregivers relies on honesty and accuracy from participants, which can be limited by issues with memory or personal opinion. Also, this means that it is difficult to know whether what is being assessed is early attachment, or current adult attachment. The measures of early attachment used in most studies may be confounded with other factors, making them meaningless and reducing the validity of the findings

Answer 111

Even when studies do assess attachment in early infancy (eg. McCarthy) validity problems may still exist as associations between attachment quality and later development may be affected by confounding variables eg. parenting style may influence both attachment quality and later development, genetically-influenced personality may effect both factors ect. Researchers can never be sure that it is early attachment and not another factor influencing later development, bringing into question the internal validity of research.