Research Methods

Question 1

Define Independent variable

Answer 1

This is the variable the researcher manipulates(changes) to see the effect on the dependent variable.

Question 2

Define dependent variable

Answer 2

This is the variable the researcher is measuring

Question 3

What is a hypothesis

Answer 3

A testable prediction about what he researcher believes will happen in their study
This is before the research happens

Question 4

Types of hypothesis

Answer 4

Alternative and Null

Question 5

Alternative hypothesis

Answer 5

There will be difference between the two conditions

Question 6

Null hypothesis

Answer 6

There will NOT be a difference between the two conditions

Question 7

Lab experiment A01

Answer 7

an experiment conducted in a lab which is a highly controlled environment
where the researcher manipulates the IV and measures the effect on the DV

Question 8

Lab experiment AO3

Answer 8

strengths:
high control over extraneous variables because the research is carried out in a controlled environment, increasing the validity of the study.

high reliability because it’s easy to repeat the study in the exact same conditions to see if the researcher achieves consistent results.

weaknesses:
low ecological validity as it’s carried out in an artificial environment which makes it difficult to generalize the results beyond the setting of the study.

prone to demand characteristics because it’s easier for the ppt to pick up on clues to the experiment and change their natural behaviour, lowering the validity of the study.

Question 9

Field Experiment AO1

Answer 9

An experiment which takes place in a natural environment
where the researcher manipulates the IV and measures the effect on the DV

Question 10

Field Experiment AO3

Answer 10

strengths:
high ecological validity as it’s carried out in a real life environment which makes it easier to generalize the results beyond the setting of the study

less prone to demand characteristics because it’s less likely the ppt will pick up on clue to the experiment and change their natural behaviour, increasing the validity.

weaknesses:
low control over extraneous variables because the research is carried out in a natural environment with low control, decreasing the validity of the study.

low reliability because it’s difficult to repeat the study in exactly the same conditions, as there is low control, to see if the researcher can achieve consistent results

Question 11

Natural Experiment AO1

Answer 11

The researcher takes advantage of a naturally occuring IV

Question 12

Natural experiment AO3

Answer 12

strengths:
high ecological validity as it’s carried out in a real life environment which makes it easier to generalize the results beyond the setting of the study.

provides opportunities for research that could not be undertaken due to ethical reasons as the researcher is not manipulating the IV

weaknesses:
low control over extraneous variables because the researcher is taking advantage of a naturally occurring event so there is a lack of control, this decreases the validity of the study.

limited opportunities for this type of research because some events may be very rare

Question 13

independent groups design AO1

Answer 13

ppts only take part in one condition of the IV either the experimental condition or the control condition

Question 14

independent groups design AO3

Answer 14

strength:
there are no order effects as ppts only take part in one condition so they will not get bored, better, or worse, increasing the validity of the research.

weakness:
there are individual differences as ppt variables may affect how well they do at the task depending on which condition they are in this affects the validity of the research.

Question 15

repeated measures AO1

Answer 15

ppts take part in both conditions of the IV
all ppts take part in the control condition and experimental condition

Question 16

repeated measures AO3

Answer 16

strength:
there are no individual differences as ppts take part in both conditions so there will be no ppt variables affecting their performance of the task.

weaknesses:
there are order effects as ppts may become bored, better, or worse at a task because they have done it before which affects the results.

this design is prone to demand characteristics. as ppts complete the task twice they are more likely to pick up on clues to the aim of the experiment and may change their behaviour to help of hinder the research.

Question 17

matched pairs AO1

Answer 17

ppts are pre-tested on a key variable that could affect the study. the ppts with similar scores are then matched together and split across the two experimental conditions.

Question 18

matched pairs AO3

Answer 18

strength:
it reduces individual differences between ppts as it matches ppts on extraneous variables that could affect the DV

weakness:
creating this design is time consuming as the researcher has to pre-test and match up similar ppts. the psychologists would need a very large pool of people.

Question 19

Random allocation

Answer 19

Each ppt has an equal chance of being in each condition in order to avoid any potential researcher bias.

Write all the names of ppts on equal sized pieces of paper
put the pieces into a hat
pull out half of the ppts for Condition A and the remaining half will be in Condition B

Question 20

Counterbalancing

Answer 20

Counterbalancing helps balance order effects by splitting the group of ppts into two groups. One half will then complete Condition A while the other half complete Condition B
After completing this, they swap and complete the opposite condition.

Question 21

standardisation

Answer 21

standardisation means to keep things the same for both conditions
the only thing that should be changing is the IV

this will reduce bias and extraneous variables that could impact the DV

increasing the validity and reliability as the study can be repeated in the same conditions to achieve consistent results.

Question 22

randomisation

Answer 22

where possible aspects of the research should be chosen by random and not decided by the researcher which may be open to bias.

write the words on equal sized pieces of paper
put the papers in a hat
pull out x amount of words for the word list and they will be in the order they were pulled from

Question 23

population

Answer 23

the group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest are called the population

Question 24

sample

Answer 24

a sample is a group of people taken from the target population to take part in the research. it is assumed that the sample is representative of the target population

Question 25

Random sampling A01

Answer 25

What?
Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

How?
1. Write the names of everyone in the target population on equal size piece of paper
2. Put the pieces of paper in a hat.
3. Without looking select the number you want in your sample from the hat.

Question 26

Random Sampling AO3

Answer 26

Strength:
Avoids researcher bias because everyone in the
target population has an equal chance of being selected
therefore less chance of a bias sample

weakness:
Very time consuming because it takes time getting
all the pps and it is not guaranteed participants would
want to take part

Question 27

Opportunity Sampling AO1

Answer 27

What?
Who is at a place at that moment in time

How?
1. Go somewhere we you will have access to the population you want to study
2. Ask the first (N) people who are there at that moment in time
3. if they will take part in your study.

Question 28

Opportunity sampling AO3

Answer 28

strength:
Very quick, easy and convenient to get a sample as
you choose who is available at the time

weakness:
May not be representative of the target population, this is because the researcher can choose who they want because they feel these people may fit
their hypothesis, resulting in bias.

Question 29

Systematic sampling AO1

Answer 29

What?
A ‘system’ is applied to select Ppts.

How?
1. Create a sampling frame to organise the target population e.g. put all the people in the target population
in alphabetical order.
2. Decide on the system e.g. very 5th or 10th person is chosen until there are enough ppts for the sample.

Question 30

Systematic sampling AO3

Answer 30

strength:
Avoids researcher bias as the researcher has no
influence over who is chosen.

weakness:
The sample may not be representative as not everyone has an equal chance of being picked and can still result in a bias sample

Question 31

stratified sampling AO1

Answer 31

What?
An advanced way of sampling where the make-up of the sample reflects the proportions of certain sub-groups inthe target population.

How?
1. Identify the different sub-groups that make up a population e.g. males/females.
2. Calculate how many of each proportion you would need for your sample size e.g. if you wanted a sample of 80 ppts what would 70% of 80 be.
3. No. of ppts which make up each proportion are chosen using random sampling.

Question 32

calculate stratified sampling

Answer 32

If the scenario does give you percentages:
(Sample size wanted/100) x Percentage size of sub-group
If the scenario doesn’t give you percentages:
(Sample size wanted / Target pop size) x Sub-group size

Question 33

stratified sampling AO3

Answer 33

strength:
Most representative sample as is it reflects the make-up of the target population in the correct proportions/amounts meaning findings can be
generalised to the target population.

weakness:
Very time consuming because it takes time working out the proportions of Ppts needed and it is not guaranteed participants would consent to take part.

Question 34

Controlled observation AO1

Answer 34

Takes place in an artificial environment where the
researcher can control extraneous variables

Question 35

Controlled observation AO3

Answer 35

strengths:
High control over extraneous variables because the observation is in a controlled environment by increasing the validity of the study.

High reliability as it is controlled, this means it is easy to repeat in exactly the same conditions to see if the researcher can gain consistent results.

weakness:
Low ecological validity because the research is carried out in a controlled and artificial environment which means it is more difficult to generalise the results beyond the setting of the observation, decreasing the validity of the observation.

Question 36

Naturalistic observation AO1

Answer 36

Takes place in a real-life environment for the participants, the behaviours are taking place where they would normally occur

Question 37

Naturalistic observation AO3

Answer 37

strengths:
High ecological validity because the research is carried out in a real life environment which means the results are easier to generalise beyond the setting of the observation, increasing the validity of the observation.

weaknesses:
Low control over extraneous variables because the observation is carried out in a real life/natural environment with low levels of control. This decreases
the validity of the observation.

Low reliability because the observation is conducted in a real-life environment which makes it difficult to repeat the study in the exact same
conditions to see if the researcher gains consistent results.

Question 38

Overt AO1

Answer 38

Ppts are aware their behaviour is being observed so are aware of the purpose of the research. The researcher is clearly visible to them

Question 39

Overt AO3

Answer 39

Strength:
The researcher can gain informed consent because the participants are aware they are being observed so
the researcher can get their permission.

weakness:
High chance of demand characteristics because the participants are aware they are being observed so may change their behaviour due to the presence of the researcher, decreasing the validity of the research.

Question 40

Covert AO1

Answer 40

Ppts are not aware they are taking part in research. This may be done through a hidden camera or a two-way mirror.

Question 41

Covert AO3

Answer 41

strength:
Less chance of demand characteristics because the participants are not aware they are being observed so
will not change their behaviour as a result of the researcher, increasing the validity of the observation.

weakness:
Lack of informed consent as the participants do not know they are being observed so have not given their permission. This devalues the research and decreases psychology’s reputation.

Question 42

Participant AO1

Answer 42

When the researcher joins in and becomes part of the
group they are studying
e.g. joining in with football hooligans

Question 43

Participant AO3

Answer 43

strength:
The researcher can gain an in-depth understanding of behaviour as they are part of the group. They are
more likely to understand the motivations behind behaviours demonstrated by the group.

weakness:
Greater chance of researcher bias as the researcher is involved in the group. This means it may be harder to be objective when reporting their findings because they have built up relationships with the members of the group.

Question 44

Non-Participant AO1

Answer 44

The researcher does not join in with the group they are studying and watch the group from afar

Question 45

Non-participant AO3

Answer 45

strength:
Reduced chance of researcher bias as the researcher is not involved in the group. This means they are more likely to be objective when reporting their findings because they have not built up a relationships with the participants.

weakness:
May miss behaviours and motivation for behaviours as they are not part of the group, they may be less likely to understand the reasons behind behaviour as they are not experiencing situations first hand and are just observing from a distance.

Question 46

Inter-observer reliability

Answer 46

Researchers want to see if their behaviour categories are reliable. In order to do this, we use a second observer to check the results are the same as the original observer
(This can help to reduce researcher bias as well)

How to check for inter-observer reliability:
1. Two observers should use the SAME behaviour categories
2. Watch the SAME behaviour for the SAME amount of time
3. Compare their data using a correlation
4. If they are similar they have high inter-observer reliability

Question 47

Self report methods: Questionnaires AO1

Answer 47

Questionnaires (or surveys) are a prepared list of written questions to which a person responds
This can be done face-to-face, over the phone, on the internet or by post

Question 48

Self report methods: Questionnaires AO3

Answer 48

strengths:
One strength of using questionnaires as a research method is that they can easily be distributed to a wide range of people. This means the research can gather lots of results which are easier to generalise to the target population

weaknesses:
One weakness of questionnaires is that they are open to social desirability bias. This is because people may lie to present themselves in the best possible light reducing the validity of the findings.

During questionnaires the researcher is usually not present so if a ppt does not understand a question they
cannot ask what that means. Similarly, the researcher cannot ask a participant what they mean by an answer which may leave them confused and therefore misunderstood

Question 49

Self report methods: Interviews AO1

Answer 49

Interviews involve a face to face conversation between the interviewer and the interviewee, however, they
can be conducted over the phone or via text. The main thing is that the conversation is happening in real time.
Structured interview – the interviewer reads out a list of preprepared questions to the interviewee. They are
following an exact script.
Unstructured interview – there is a general aim of the conversation with maybe a few questions thought
about in advance. The interviewer develops a new question based on the answers given.
Semi-structured interview – questions have been set in advance, but during the interview, the interviewer will ask follow up questions at certain points based on the answers given and then will return back to the scripted questions.

Question 50

Self report methods: Interviews AO3

Answer 50

strengths:
One strength of an interviews is that the ppts can ask for clarification if they do not understand a question as the researcher is present during an interview, or the researcher could ask for clarification if they do not understand a response (or ask them to explain why they have answered that way if unstructured)

weaknesses:
One weakness of interviews is that they are open to social desirability bias. This is because people may lie to present themselves in the best possible light reducing the validity of the findings.

Interviews are more time-consuming and expensive compared to questionnaires as the researcher has to talk to everyone individually. This means it is difficult to gather results from a large sample of people in order to generalise.

Question 51

Open Questions AO1

Answer 51

These are questions with no fixed response, which ppts can answer using their own words. They can express their views of their own behaviour and responses tend to include greater detail.

Question 52

Open Questions AO3

Answer 52

strength:
Open questions provide more in-depth and detailed answers because they allow ppts to expand which can
increase the validity of the results.
weakness:
Open questions are difficult to analyse because there is a wide range of different answers from participants

Question 53

Closed Question AO3

Answer 53

strength:
Closed questions are easier to analyse because you can count responses which is quicker

weakness:
Closed questions do not allow ppts to expand on their answers so the researcher may never know why the ppt feels the way they do which can lower the validity of the results

Question 54

Case Studies AO1

Answer 54

A case study is an in-depth investigation based on a single individual, a group, an event or an institution e.g prison. Researchers are interested in their/its unique experience. Case studies tend to involve people or events that are unusual, rare or unexpected. They can also be based on ‘everyday’ experiences too, such as how a new mother adjusts to going back to work.

Question 55

Case studies AO3

Answer 55

strengths:
One strength of a case study is that they provide rich and detailed information about a person, group or event. This is because they use qualitative methods such as interviews and questionnaires which allow researchers to gather a deep understanding about behaviour, increasing the validity of their research.

Another strength of a case study is that it allows researchers to study rare and unusual behaviours. This would be difficult to do in a lab experiment because the variables will be hard to manipulate e.g. the effects of brain damage or memory loss therefore increasing our understanding of human behaviour.

weaknesses:

One weakness of using case studies is that they have low population validity. This is because they are only based on person or a small group of people and sometimes that have unique experiences. This makes it difficult to generalise the findings to a wider population.

Another weakness of a case study is that the data can be subjective. The findings and conclusions from a case study are based on the researcher’s own interpretation of the situation/case. It is hard for another researcher to replicate the case study and find the same results (reducing reliability).

Question 56

Correlations AO1

Answer 56

A correlation shows an association/relationship/link between two co-variables. Correlations are plotted on
a scattergraph.

Question 57

Correlations AO3

Answer 57

strengths:
One strength of a correlation is that there is no manipulation of the variables so it is appropriate to use when studying sensitive issues that may raise ethical issues or when it would be inappropriate to manipulate a situation e.g. is there a relationship between addiction and stress?Whereas in an experiment it would be impractical and unethical to investigate a cause and effect.

Correlations are often used as a starting point to assess possible patterns. If a relationship is found between the two variables it could be suggested that we can predict one variable may impact on the other. Therefore, this may aid further experimental research into the topic or save time and money if no relationship is found before researchers commit to an experimental study.

weaknesses:
One limitation of correlations is that it is difficult to establish cause and effect between the two variables as only a relationship is found between the two variables. Therefore, other extraneous variables could have been responsible for the relationship found.

One limitation of correlations is that they can be misinterpreted by the media and society when a link has been found between two variables. Some may assume a conclusion can be made about the causes for the relationship which can then be misused by the public to support or contradict an argument.

Question 58

Quantitative data AO1

Answer 58

• This is data that is expressed numerically.
• This type of data can be gained from individual scores in experiments, such as the number of words recalled or the number of seconds it takes to complete a task or from self-report methods and the use of closed questions.
• The data is open to being analysed and can be easily converted into graphs, charts etc.

Question 59

Quantitative Data AO3

Answer 59

strengths:
Quantitative data is easier to analyse which allows comparisons to be drawn between groups of data and patterns and trends to be established. This means that it may be easier to make conclusions about behaviour.

weakness:
Quantitative data lacks depth and meaning as it prevents participants from being able to develop their thoughts, feelings and opinions on a given subject. Therefore, quantitative data may lack vital detail which reduces the validity of the data.

Question 60

Qualitative data AO1

Answer 60

• Qualitative data is expressed in words/ is descriptive data
• It may take the form a written description of the thoughts, feelings and opinions of participants such as from a notes recorded within an interview, a diary entry or answers from open questions in a questionnaire.
• Qualitative methods are concerned with the interpretation of peoples written word.

Question 61

Qualitative data AO3

Answer 61

strengths:
Qualitative data provides rich detail and depth, which allows participants to develop their thoughts and feelings on a given subject. This provides a greater understanding of the behaviour being studied and increases validity of the research.

weakness:
Qualitative data is harder to analyse as it is difficult to summarise in a graph to establish patterns trends. This opens the data up to potential researcher bias as the analysis is based upon their own subjective interpretations of the data.

Question 62

Primary Data AO1

Answer 62

• Primary data is gathered directly/first hand from the participants themselves and is specific to
the aim of the study.
• Data which is gathered by conducting an experiment, questionnaire, interview or observation would be classed as primary data.

Question 63

Primary data AO3

Answer 63

strength:
Primary data is collected first hand from the participant specifically for the aim of the research which allows researchers to specifically target the information that they require and organise and experiment in a way that suits them and their aim

weakness:
Primary data is conducted by the researcher themselves which involves time and effort to obtain the data as well as analyse the findings

Question 64

Secondary data AO1

Answer 64

• Secondary data has previously been collected by a third party
(another researcher or an official body), not specifically for the
aim of the study, and then used by the researcher.
• For example, pre-existing data such as government statistics.

Question 65

Secondary Data AO3

Answer 65

strength:
Secondary data is easily accessed and requires minimal effort to obtain. The researcher might find that information that he/she wants to collect already exists therefore is no need to collect primary data.

weakness:
Secondary data may be poor quality or have inaccuracies. It may appear to be valuable at first but could be out-dated or incomplete and might not meet the direct needs of the researcher.

Question 66

Ethics AO1

Answer 66

Ethical issues are concerned with what is morally right and wrong when using participants in research (1). They occur when there is conflict between the needs of the research and the rights of the participants (2).

Question 67

Ethics: Deception

Answer 67

Deception is when the
ppts are not told the true
AIM of the study deliberately, to prevent participants from showing
demand characteristics.

how to overcome:
• Debrief - a post research interview where the Ppt is told the true aims of the research and full details of the study are given e.g. knowledge of any other experimental groups.
• Ppts should also be given the right to withdraw their data from publication.

Question 68

Ethics: Informed Consent

Answer 68

Where ppts give
permission to take part in
the study after being
informed of the true aims
of the research.

how to overcome:
• Participants should be given a consent form at the
beginning of the research, detailing the true nature and
aims of the study so they can make a decision about
whether to take part.
• If they agree they will be asked to sign a consent form.
• A child under 16 cannot give their consent so we need to gain consent from their parents.
• If consent wasn’t gained from the ppts in the study a debrief should be given and Ppts can give retrospective
consent. Ppts may wish to withdraw their data if they do not consent.

Question 69

Ethics: Protection from harm

Answer 69

Ppts should be protected
psychologically and physically. They must not be placed at more risk than they would be in everyday life.

how to overcome:
• Ppts should be offered the right to withdraw at any point
• Ppts must be reminded that their behaviour is typical/normal of the general public, and in extreme cases if ppts feel embarrassed or stressed as a result of the procedures used in the research, they should be offered counselling (if relevant).

Question 70

Ethics: Confidentiality

Answer 70

Ensuring ppts details and data (findings) remain anonymous so they
cannot be identified in the research.

how to overcome:
• Anonymity - All personal should be kept anonymous e.g. use of numbers, initials or fake names.
• Psychologists should not share their data with other researchers unless the ppts have been told