Research Methods

Question 1

Identify the two types of research method

Answer 1

• Experimental
• Non-experimental

Question 2

Identify the types of experimental methods

Answer 2

• Laboratory experiments
• Field experiments
• Natural experiments
• Quasi experiments

Question 3

Outline lab experiments

Answer 3

• Defined by the high level of control the researcher has over variables in the study. The experimenter will control environmental factors (eg. noise/temperature) as well as the experience the participant has using standardised procedures

Question 4

Evaluate lab experiments

Answer 4

+ High internal validity as extraneous variables are
controlled
+ Easily replicable due to the use of standardised
procedures
+ Cause and effect is easily determined due to the
isolation of variables

• Lack external validity through ecological validity
  and mundane realism
• Demand characteristics are present as
  participants know they’re in a study
• Results may be affected by experimenter bias

Question 5

Outline field experiments

Answer 5

• Defined by conducting the experiment in naturalistic settings.

• This change in location is an attempt to avoid the artificial nature of lab studies, and can include shops, schools or anywhere participants would be expected to behave naturally.

Question 6

Evaluate field experiments

Answer 6

+ High external validity as participants will act
naturally in a more usual activity
+ No demand characteristics as participants don’t
know they’re in a study

• Low internal validity due to sample issues
• Lack of control over possible extraneous
  variables that can impact the dependent variable
• Time consuming, expensive and difficult to
  replicate

Question 7

Identify what lab and field experiments have in common

Answer 7

The independent variable is manipulated by he researcher between conditions.
Any change in the dependent variable is measured while all other extraneous variables are kept consistent between condition if they could affect the DV

Question 8

Outline natural experiments

Answer 8

• The two levels of independent variables occur naturally without the researchers influence. The researcher simply records the change in the dependent variable

• Natural experiments happen with an event (eg. natural disaster) causes people to form into levels of the independent variable

Question 9

Evaluate natural experiments

Answer 9

+ The only way to test certain things deemed as
unethical
+ No demand characteristics as it’s real behaviour
in the real world; high external validity

• Extraneous variables impact the dependent
  variable
• More time consuming, expensive as well as
  ethical (informed consent), replication (innate
  characteristics/rare events) and sample (may not
  be comparable) issues

Question 10

Outline Quasi experiments

Answer 10

• Participants cannot be randomly assigned between levels of independent variable, often because the level of independent variable is an innate characteristic of participants

• The characteristics psychologists study already exist in participants, (eg. gender or age)

Question 11

Evaluate Quasi experiments

Answer 11

+ The only way to test certain things deemed as
unethical
+ No demand characteristics, unless the
experiments in a lab, as it’s real behaviour
in the real world; high external validity

• Extraneous variables impact the dependent
  variable, unless the experiments in a lab
• More time consuming, expensive as well as
  ethical (informed consent), replication (innate
  characteristics/rare events) and sample (may not
  be comparable) issues

Question 12

Compare and contrast natural and quasi experiments

Answer 12

• COMPARISON:
In both, the independent variables can’t be manipulated as they’re natural

• CONTRAST:
In natural experiments, the two levels of independent variable occur naturally, the researcher simply records the effects on the dependent variable, whereas in quasi experiments the independent variable already exists in the participants they’re studying and extraneous variables can be controlled

Question 13

What’s the difference between experimental and non-experimental methods

Answer 13

In experimental methods, the researcher manipulates the independent variable, but in non-experimental methods the researcher does not

Question 14

Identify the types of non-experimental method

Answer 14

• Observations
• Self-report methods
• Correlations

Question 15

Outline observations

Answer 15

• The researcher watches and records spontaneous/natural behaviour of participants without manipulating levels of independent variable

• These can be structured, involving the use of behavioural categories and likely producing numerical, quantitative data or unstructured where the investigator may want to write down everything they see. This tends to produce qualitative data and be more difficult to record and analyse but may be more appropriate with small sample sizes eg. marriage counselling session

• Behavioural categories should be measurable, observable and self-evident and should be exclusive and not overlap (eg. smiling/grinning) there also shouldn’t be a ‘dustbin category’ of many different behaviours

Question 16

Identify the possible characteristics of observations

Answer 16

• Controlled vs naturalistic observations
• Covert vs overt observations
• Participant vs non-participant observations

Question 17

Outline and evaluate controlled observations

Answer 17

• Aspects of the environment are controlled in order to give participants the same experience, often in a laboratory setting

+ High internal validity as extraneous variables are
controlled, reducing the chance they’re
responsible for behaviour
+ Reliable results due to standardised procedure
- Low external validity, behaviours are less likely
to be generalisable to other situations

Question 18

Outline and evaluate naturalistic observations

Answer 18

• Takes place in the real world, in places participants are likely to spend their time such as school or work

+ High external validity as natural behaviours are
more likely to be generalisable to other
situations
- Low internal validity as uncontrolled extraneous
variables may be responsible for behaviour

Question 19

Outline overt observations

Answer 19

• The participants can see the researcher and are aware their behaviour is being used as part of an observation

+ Ethical through informed consent as participants
agree to take part in the research
- Demand characteristics present as they know
the researchers watching or social desirability
bias may be a factor

Question 20

Outline covert observations

Answer 20

• The participants are not aware they’re being observed as they can’t see someone making notes/recordings

+ No demand characteristics or social desirability
bias
- Unethical as participants can’t give informed
consent

Question 21

Outline participant observations

Answer 21

• The researcher joins the group being observed and takes part in group activities and conversations

+ The researcher’s more likely to remain objective
in their interpretation of the participants
behaviour
- Researchers can lose objectivity; ‘going native’
seeing only from the participant perspective

Question 22

Outline non-participant observation

Answer 22

• The researcher’s separate from the participants
recording observations without taking part in
the activities

+ The researcher’s more likely remain objective in j
interpretation of participant behaviour
- Due to lack of trust/rapport the researcher may
miss out on important insights/participants don’t
have naturally

Question 23

Outline self report techniques

Answer 23

The participant reveals personal information about themselves (eg. behaviours, emotions, beliefs, attitudes and memories) in response to a series of questions, this can either be in the form of questionnaires or interviews

Question 24

Outline questionnaires

Answer 24

Participants give information in response to a set of questions sent to them, this can be in the post or online and consists of one of the following measurement scales:

• Likert scale: respondents indicate level of
agreement eg. strongly agree to strongly disagree

• Rating scale: respondents select a value that resp
resents strength of a feeling eg. very entertaining
to not at all entertaining

• Fixed choice option: includes a list of possible
options and respondents select all that apply

Question 25

Outline interviews

Answer 25

Participants give information in response to direct questioning from the researcher, and can be conducted in person or over the phone.
There are three types of interview; structured, semi-structured and unstructured

Question 26

Outline and evaluate structured interviews

Answer 26

• The interviewer reads out a list of prepared
questions as they’re written

+ The interviewer doesn’t have to be highly trained
+ Responses are easily comparable (same q’s)
- Participant responses can be followed up with
additional questions that could provide more
detail

Question 27

Outline and evaluate semi-structured interviews

Answer 27

• Combination of prepared questions with the
ability to ask additional questions

+ Responses are easily comparable (same q’s)
+ Follow up questions to interesting answers
+ Rapports more likely to make participants
comfortable and answer questions
- The interviewer must be highly trained to think
of questions in the moment

Question 28

Outline and evaluate unstructured interviews

Answer 28

• No list of set questions, an open conversation
about a topic

+ Follow up questions to interesting answers
+ Rapports more likely to make participants
comfortable and answer questions
- Responses aren’t as comparable as every
interview’s different
- The interviewer must be highly trained to think
of questions in the moment

Question 29

Evaluate questionnaires

Answer 29

+ Don’t require a trainer interviewer and can be
distributed easily making large data collection
cheap and easy
+ When using closed questions, thousands of
responses are easily compared and it’s easy to
replicate

• Questions can’t be rephrased
• Often not taken seriously leading to acquiesce
  (agreement) bias

Question 30

Evaluate interviews

Answer 30

+ Can rephrase questions that aren’t understood
+ Can build rapport, so participants feel more
comfortable and take them more seriously

• Requires an interviewer, significantly increasing
  cost per participant especially if the interviewer
  has to be trained
• Interviewer effects, personal characteristics of the interviewer can alter the participants response

Question 31

Identify design points of self-report techniques

Answer 31

• Avoid complex terminology: terms may not be understood and participants may be embarrassed to ask (i) or unable to (q)

• Rewording questions: skilled interviewers can reword a non-understood question in a way that doesn’t affect comparison

• Avoiding leading questions: questions shouldn’t be written in a way that suggests a ‘correct’ way to answer

• Piloting: small scale version to identify confusing questions or questions that provide useless responses or give away the aim

• Filler questions: not linked to the research aim; used to build rapport (i) or help hide research aim (q) reducing demand characteristics

Question 32

Identify the advantages of self-report methods

Answer 32

Same set of closed questions are easily replicated and provides easy data analysis

Question 33

Identify the disadvantages of self-report methods

Answer 33

• Social desirability bias: participants responding in a way that makes them look good in front of the researcher

• Demand characteristics: it’s often easy to work out the aim from the questions, people answer what they think the researcher wants

• Researcher bias: the researcher interpreting open question responses in a way that confirms their beliefs (this can be unintentional)

• Invesigator effects: the personal characteristics or the body language of the interviewer may influence participants answers

Question 34

Define a correlation

Answer 34

A method used to analyse data; a correlations used to analyse the association between two co-variables

Question 35

Outline correlational studies

Answer 35

• No variables are manipulated unlike experimental designs that manipulate the IV and measure the resultant change on the DV, instead two co-variables are measured and compared to look for a relationship so no causal conclusions can be drawn

Question 36

Outline how correlations are measured

Answer 36

• Scattergrams
• Correlation coefficient- is a measure if the extent of a correlation that exist ls between two co-variables, it has a numerical value between +1 and -1 indicating the strength of the relationship (+1= a strong positive correlation and -1= a strong negative correlation)
- Positive correlation- when the two variables
increase/decrease together
- Negative correlation- as one variable increases,
the other decreases
- Zero correlation- no relationship between the
two variables
They’re calculated using statistical tests such a Spearman’s Rho and test-retest reliability is measured in this way

Question 37

Evaluate correlations

Answer 37

+ Justify further research as they can highlight potential causal relationships that can be tested with experimental methods to discover cause and effect relationships
+ Can be used when it’s unethical or impractical to manipulate research
+ Correlation coefficient is useful in describing the direction and strength of relationships

• Correlation doesn’t show causation: we don’t know which variables impacting the other or if the relationships caused by a third variable
• Correlating can be misused or misinterpreted eg. in the media relationships between variables are sometimes presented as causal facts when they aren’t (eg. high crime rate in single parent families)

Question 38

Outline case studies and when or who they’re used to study

Answer 38

• Range of data collected from an individual, group or institution

• Case studies looking at behaviour over a short period of time are called ‘snapshots’, while longitudinal case studies follow participants over many years to show behavioural change over time but are difficult to continue over the long term due to finding/researchers dying of old age

• Data’s mainly collected using interviews and observations, but content analysis can be performed on written evidence and even experimental techniques can be used

• Case studies are generally conducted on psychological unusual individuals, unusual events, organisational practices or a typical individual within a demographic

Question 39

What’s clinical psychology

Answer 39

The unusual behaviour of individuals with brain damage indicating the area that’s damaged is in some way related to that behavioural function

Question 40

Identify examples of case studies in psychology

Answer 40

• Clinical psychology: the case of Tan (Louis Leborgne) could only say the word ‘Tan’ while other functions were unaffected, helped identify Broca’s area

• Psychodynamic psychology: Freud used a number of case studies to support his theory of psychodynamics. He suggested ‘little Hans’ fear of horses represented his fear of his father, helping to support the idea of the Oedipus complex

• Childhood psychology: The case of ‘Genie’ who was deprived of care until 13 years old and never developed normal communication

Question 41

Evaluate case studies

Answer 41

+ Results of one unusual case study can upend an established theory

+ Often the only way to investigate very unusual/extreme human behaviour that can’t be replicated in labs due to ethics

+ In depth, mostly qualitative data increases realism and provides high detail and valid insights, taking a holistic approach

+ Been used to develop hypothesis that can then be tested experimentally eg. Broca’s area

• Interviews form a large part and can be prone to social desirability bias or memories may be inaccurate
• Findings can’t be generalised as unknown factors can contribute to behaviour
• Subjects are unique so exact replications to check reliability aren’t possible
• Researcher bias as they decide what findings to include/exclude and may only include data that confirms their theory or may lose objectivity after knowing the subject

Question 42

Outline content analysis

Answer 42

• An indirect observational method that’s used to analyse human behaviour by studying human artefacts (things people make)

• Content analysis is often the written word (non-numerical qualitative data) or transcripts of spoken word that’s then transformed into quantitative data

Question 43

Describe the process of content analysis

Answer 43

• Decide a research question and select a sample from a larger quantity of all possible data (eg. books, tweets)

• Coding, the researcher decides on categories/coding units to be recorded (eg. occurrences of particular words) based on the research question

• Work through the data, reading the sample and tallying the number of times pre-determined categories appeared

• Data analysis can be performed on quantitative data to look for patterns

• Test for reliability through test-retest reliability by running the same content analysis and comparing data or through inter-rater reliability where a second rater mirrors the process and compares data

• How the closely the two sets of data match in either method is assessed with a test of correlation such as Spearman’s rho. A correlation of 0.8 or higher is usually accepted to show the data’s reliable

Question 44

Evaluate content analysis

Answer 44

+ Artefacts are usually not created for research purposes but are taken from the real world (easy to gather samples) meaning high external validity and findings are generalisable to real-world situations

+ Other researchers should be able to replicate a content analysis using the same coding units/behavioural categories and access to the same sample

• Researcher/observer bias as researchers must interpret subjective texts and tend to interpret them in a way that supports their view
• Data may lack validity- wasnt created under controlled conditions (made for research) eg. historical records like diaries may contain inaccuracies and not all diaries have equal chance of surviving to the present

Question 45

Outline thematic analysis

Answer 45

• Researchers start by attempting to identify the deeper meaning of the text by reading it first and allowing themes to emerge

• Themes are not pre-determined by the researcher but emerge from the text

Question 46

Describe the method of thematic analysis

Answer 46

• Collect a text or turn recordings into a text through transcription

• Read text/transcript first to spot patterns that can be coded and collected

• Re-read the text/transcriptions looking for emergent themes

Question 47

Evaluate thematic analysis

Answer 47

+ Artefacts are usually not created for research purposes but are taken from the real world (easy to gather samples) meaning high external validity and findings are generalisable to real-world situations

+ Other researchers should be able to replicate a thematic analysis using the same coding units/behavioural categories and access to the same sample

+ Theories come after discovering themes so this potentially removes researcher bias

• Data may lack validity- wasnt created under controlled conditions (made for research) eg. historical records like diaries may contain inaccuracies and not all diaries have equal chance of surviving to the present

Question 48

Define and outline an aim in psychological research

Answer 48

• A clearly phrased general statement about what the investigator intends to research

• An aim can include the purpose of the study and is phrased as a question or statement that identifies what the researchers intending to investigate and why

Question 49

Define and outline a hypothesis in psychological research

Answer 49

• A precise, testable statement including levels of independent and dependant variable or both co-variables for a correlational study.

• These variables must be operationalised. Operationalised variables are carefully stated, demonstrating exactly how they’re measured (E.g. the number of words recalled)

• Hypotheses are not predictions, they’re statements of fact that the research accepts or rejects based on the data they collect

Question 50

Identify the difference between aims and hypotheses

Answer 50

Aims state what the researchers intending to investigate and potentially why, whereas a hypothesis is formulated by the researcher to communicate exactly how the research will be conducted

Question 51

Identify and explain the types of hypothesis
Watch psych boost video to learn experimental hypothesis to edit flashcards

Answer 51

• The Null hypothesis (N0) states there’s no change (difference) in the measurement of the dependant variable as a result of the manipulation in the independent variable

• The alternate (research) hypothesis (N1) states that there is a change (difference) in measurement of the dependant variable as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable. This can be written as a:
-Non directional (two-tailed) hypothesis that
states there’s a difference in the measurement of
the dependant variable but not the direction the
results will go
-Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis that states
there is a difference in the measurement of the
dependant variable and states the direction the
results will go. Directional hypotheses are only
used by researchers if there is previous research
that suggests which way the results are likely to
go

Question 52

Describe how you can test hypotheses

Answer 52

• Data’s collected and statistical testing is conducted on said data providing evidence

• If the evidence is strong enough, the Null hypothesis can be rejected and the alternate hypothesis is accepted. If not, the Null hypothesis is accepted and the alternate hypothesis is accepted

Question 53

Identify the difference between experimental and alternative hypotheses

Answer 53

Experimental hypotheses state there will or won’t be a difference while alternative hypotheses state there will or won’t be a correlation

Question 54

Define sampling and identify why we use sampling

Answer 54

• The difference between the target population and the sample

• We use sampling to make valid generalisations about behaviour being studied. We use methods to minimise costs while maximising generalisability

Question 55

Define the ‘target population’

Answer 55

• Every member of the group that the investigator plans to study

• As the whole target population can’t be studied, researchers conduct their experiments on a smaller sample of participants, taken from the larger target population: this is generalisation.

• Whether the results can be generalised or not depends on how representative the sample is of the target population, meaning the sample used in the study share the same characteristics with members of the target population

Question 56

Identify the types of sampling methods

Answer 56

• Random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Opportunity sampling
• Volunteer sampling
• Stratified sampling

Question 57

Outline and evaluate random sampling and identify how the effects of chance can be reduced

Answer 57

• Each member of the target population has a mathematically equal chance of being in the sample

1. The researcher needs a full list of the entire
   target population
2. All names are written down and placed in a
   container or assigned a unique number and
   these numbers are entered into a random
   number generator
3. Names are drawn/generated randomly and
   selected from the sample

+ No researcher bias as they can’t choose
participants they want
+ Quick method of there’s a pre-existing list
-If not, it’s difficult/time consuming to get a full list
of names
-Potentially get an unrepresentative sample by
chance

• The effects of chance can be reduced (not eliminated) by using a larger sample size and using statistical analysis of data including tests such as Chi-squared, correlation coefficient and students T-test. These tests can be used to see the extent that random chance has influenced the data

Question 58

Identify the tests that can be assessed and you must be able to interpret in an exam

Answer 58

• Chi-squared
• Correlation Coefficient
• Students T-test

Question 59

Outline and evaluate systematic sampling

Answer 59

• Every ‘nth’ participant is chosen from a list of the target population

1. The researcher needs a full list of the entire
   target population
2. The researcher reads down the list selecting
   every ‘nth’ participant until a sample is chosen

+ No researcher bias as they can’t choose
participants they want
+ Quick method of there’s a pre-existing list
-If not, it’s difficult/time consuming to get a full list
of names
-Potentially get an unrepresentative sample by
chance

Question 60

Outline and evaluate opportunity sampling

Answer 60

• The researcher directly asks available members of the target population to take part. Likely individuals the researcher has easy access to or is familiar with

1. Researcher directly asks members from within
   the target population (that they have access to)
   to take part in research
2. Any individuals who agree to take part are
   added to the sample until the required number’s
   met

+ Fastest way to get a sample
-Researcher bias
-Unlikely to be a representative sample

Question 61

Outline and evaluate volunteer sampling

Answer 61

• AKA self selecting sample, participants offer to take part after finding out about research (not asking directly)

1. Advertisements are placed where they’re likely
   to be seen by members of the target population
2. The adverts will include contact details and the
   researcher will enroll the volunteer into the
   sample when contacted

+ Easy sample to collect
-Volunteer bias; not generalisable to the wider population

Question 62

Outline and evaluate stratified sampling

Answer 62

• By selecting from within strata, characteristics of participants with the sample are in the same proportion as the target population

1. Strata/subgroups are identified along with their
   proportion in the target population (e.g. gender/
   ethnicity
2. Random sampling is used to select the number
   of participants required from within each
   stratum (e.g. 90% brown eyes and 10% blue
   eyes means 9 people with brown eyes and 1
   person with blue eyes in a 10 participant
   sample)

+ Sample’s representative
+ Random sampling avoids researcher bias
-Time consuming to identify properties of starts
and randomly sample these
-Not every characteristic can be included,
researcher bias in that the researcher decides
which strata are important

Question 63

Outline pilot studies

Answer 63

• Small scale practice investigations carried out prior to research

• The results of the study are irrelevant, the researcher is using the study to identify problems with the design, method or analysis so they can be rectified.

• Participants can also suggest appropriate changes such as demand characteristics or ethical concerns that may arise. These can be dealt with accordingly

Question 64

Identify reasons why we need pilot studies

Answer 64

• To check the independent variable has been manipulated correctly and is operationalised

• To check the method method to measure to dependant variable has been used

• To check the test/measure is appropriate

• To check the participants understand the instructions and what they’re required to do (this can be asked at the end)

• To ask participants about their experience of taking part; did it run smoothly, what changes would they make

• To save time and money if necessary changes can be made to the procedure

Question 65

Outline experimental design

Answer 65

• Refers to how we use the participant sample in combination with different levels of dependant variable and how we allocate those participants to conditions in an experiment

• There are two different conditions; the experimental condition and the control condition and three experimental designs of which we must pick the most appropriate:
1. Independent Groups Design (IGD)
2. Repeated Measures Design (RMD)
3. Matched Pairs Design (MPD)

Question 66

Outline and evaluate independent groups design

Answer 66

• Different participants are used in each condition so each participant only completes one condition. Participants are randomly allocated to each condition to avoid researcher bias

• Produces unrelated data, the individual data points in one condition cannot be paired with any of the data points in the other condition

+ Reduced chance of demand characteristics as
participants only complete 1 condition
+ No order effects
+ Time saved from random allocation
-More participants are required
-Participant variables- extraneous variable of
more participants with a certain characteristic
being assigned to one condition

Question 67

Outline and evaluate repeated measures design

Answer 67

• The same participants complete all conditions, each participant acts as their own control and is tested against themselves

• Produces related data, each participants score (data point) can be paired with a data point (their own score) in the other condition

• Counter balancing attempts to control for, but doesn’t eliminate, order effects where the first condition influences the performance of the second condition.
• Counter balancing uses an ABBA format, half the participants complete condition A first, and B second and the other half complete B first and A second.

+ No individual differences/group differences
+ One participant produces twice as much data (2
sets of results) so less participants are needed
-Increased chance of demand characteristics-
more likely to figure out the research aim
because the first condition influences the second condition

Question 68

Outline and evaluate matched pairs design

Answer 68

• Different participants complete the conditions so each participant completes one condition.

• Participants are first ranked on a characteristic (e.g. aggression) and then the top two, and each of the following two are randomly assigned to separate conditions

• Produces related data, each participant’s data point in one condition can be paired with the data point of the participant matched with them in the other condition

+ No order effects
+ Reduced chance of demand characteristics
+ Reduced participant variables (- But doesny
remove them)
-Time consuming
-Twice as many participants as repeated measures
design

Question 69

Outline Independent and Dependant variables

Answer 69

• Independent variables are the variables the researcher manipulates in experimental studies. The variations of the IV form the conditions of the study (X-axis)

• The dependant variable: researcher measures the change/difference in the DV in an experimental study (Y-axis)

• Variables should be operationalised clearly stating exactly what the variable is and how it is measured
• (IV: clearly express each level/ DV: include measurement scale (e.g. time in seconds)

• In an experimental study, researchers can claim to have shown a causal relationship between the manipulation of the IV and the change in the DV

Question 70

Outline co-variables

Answer 70

• Measurements made that are compared to see how they’re associated

• In a correlational study, two co-variables are assessed for a relationship however it’s not necessarily a causal relayionship

Question 71

Outline confounding variables

Answer 71

• A variable other than the IV that changes systematically between the levels of IV, so when the IV is changed the confounding variable also changes

• This hides the IV’s true (lack of) effect on the DV as measurements are influenced by the confounding variable. It’s an extraneous variable that wasn’t controlled on the experiment.

Question 72

Outline extraneous variables

Answer 72

• Any variable outside of the IV that could influence the measurement of the DV. This could cause an error, potentially showing a causal relationship between the IV and DV that isn’t there or hiding one that is

Question 73

Identify and explain types of extraneous variables

Answer 73

• Demand characteristics: If the participant thinks they’ve discovered the research aim, they may alter behaviour to what the researcher wants

• Participant variables: A difference in performance between two groups in an IGD that isn’t related to the IV. Occurs if more people in one group have knowledge or traits that affect results than the other(s)

• Situational variables: Environmental factors in one condition and not the other

• Order effects: In a RMD where completing the first condition may affect the performance of the second condition

Question 74

Describe how each extraneous variable can be controlled and identify general ways of controlling extraneous variables

Answer 74

• Demand characteristics: Single and double blind trials; a single blind trial is where the participant doesn’t know the aim and a double blind trail is when the researcher testing them also doesn’t know the aim

• Participant variables: Random allocation removes bias in assigning participants or materials to different levels of IV (not 100% effective as the same affect can occur due to chance)

• Situational variables: Standardised procedures

• Order effects: Counter balancing

• Extraneous variables can be controlled through pilot studies to eliminate them and peer review to identify extraneous or confounding variables

Question 75

Outline ethics in psychological research and identify ethical issues in psychology

Answer 75

• Research is expected to adhere to a code of ethics published by the British Psychological Society (BPS) in the UK that’s designed to inform and assist members in the practical and professional application of society

• Informed Consent
• Deception
• Right to Withdraw
• Protection from Harm
• Confidentiality and Anonymity
• Debrief

Question 76

Describe informed consent as an ethical issue including how it can be dealt with

Answer 76

• Providing participants with sufficient details of an investigation so they can make an informed decision as to whether they wish to participate or not
• Parental consent is required for people under 18 and consent cannot be obtained from individuals under the influence of drugs or alcohol or those deemed mentally unfit to give consent (severe mental illnesses)

• Revealing the true aims of the study when asking for consent can lead to demand characteristics which reduces the internal validity of the research. This can be avoided by using alternatives to informed consent:

1. Presumptive Consent: Asks a group similar to the sample if they’d agree to the research and if they would it’s assumed participants would also agree
2. Prior General Consent: participants agree to a long list of potential features not knowing which aspects will be part of this study
3. Retroactive Consent: Researcher asks for consent after the study and if the participant doesn’t agree their data is destroyed

Question 77

Describe informed consent as an ethical issue including how it can be dealt with

Answer 77

• Withholding information or misleading participants is unacceptable, especially if they’re likely to object or show unease once debriefed.

• Participants shouldn’t be mislead without scientific or medical justification. Sometimes it’s necessary for participants to not know the purpose of the study to get realistic results (e.g. research into conformity such as Asch, 1955)

If research requires deception:
• An ethics committee (group of experts) will conduct a cost-benefit analysis
• It should be explained in the debrief as well as in the aim of the study or any other groups.
• It should be checked that no harm was done and offer counselling or other assistance if it was.
• They should be reminded they’re still able to withdraw their data and ensure confidentiality of findings

Question 78

Identify the issue with cost-benefit analysis

Answer 78

The true value of the study to society often isn’t known for many years and so a cost-benefit analysis can be difficult to accurately conduct

Question 79

Describe right to withdraw as an ethical issue

Answer 79

Participants should be aware they can leave the study at any time and can withdraw their data after a study is finished. It’s important participants are informed of this in the consent form, standardised instructions and then reminded in the debrief

Question 80

Describe protection from harm as an ethical issue

Answer 80

Researchers have a responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation

Question 81

Describe confidentiality and anonymity as an ethical issue

Answer 81

• Participant data shouldn’t be disclosed to anyone unless agreed in advance. Numbers should be used instead of names in published research papers

• Confidentiality means that the data can be traced back to the names, whereas anonymous data cannot be, as the researchers collect no names. Confidential data is preferable if participants are followed up later

Question 82

Describe debrief as an ethical issue

Answer 82

• All relevant details of a study should be explained to participants before and after. A debrief is improtant if deception’s been used but doesn’t provide justification for unethical aspects

• Participants should leave the study in no worse state than they started it