Research Methods Flashcards

Question

Outline interviews

Answer 1

Participants give information in response to direct questioning from the researcher, and can be conducted in person or over the phone. There are three types of interview; structured, semi-structured and unstructured

Answer 2

• The interviewer reads out a list of prepared questions as they’re written + The interviewer doesn’t have to be highly trained + Responses are easily comparable (same q’s) - Participant responses can be followed up with additional questions that could provide more detail

Answer 3

• Combination of prepared questions with the ability to ask additional questions + Responses are easily comparable (same q’s) + Follow up questions to interesting answers + Rapports more likely to make participants comfortable and answer questions - The interviewer must be highly trained to think of questions in the moment

Answer 4

• No list of set questions, an open conversation about a topic + Follow up questions to interesting answers + Rapports more likely to make participants comfortable and answer questions - Responses aren’t as comparable as every interview’s different - The interviewer must be highly trained to think of questions in the moment

Answer 5

+ Don’t require a trainer interviewer and can be distributed easily making large data collection cheap and easy + When using closed questions, thousands of responses are easily compared and it’s easy to replicate - Questions can’t be rephrased - Often not taken seriously leading to acquiesce (agreement) bias

Answer 6

+ Can rephrase questions that aren’t understood + Can build rapport, so participants feel more comfortable and take them more seriously - Requires an interviewer, significantly increasing cost per participant especially if the interviewer has to be trained - Interviewer effects, personal characteristics of the interviewer can alter the participants response

Answer 7

• Avoid complex terminology: terms may not be understood and participants may be embarrassed to ask (i) or unable to (q) • Rewording questions: skilled interviewers can reword a non-understood question in a way that doesn’t affect comparison • Avoiding leading questions: questions shouldn’t be written in a way that suggests a ‘correct’ way to answer • Piloting: small scale version to identify confusing questions or questions that provide useless responses or give away the aim • Filler questions: not linked to the research aim; used to build rapport (i) or help hide research aim (q) reducing demand characteristics

Answer 8

Same set of closed questions are easily replicated and provides easy data analysis

Answer 9

• Social desirability bias: participants responding in a way that makes them look good in front of the researcher • Demand characteristics: it’s often easy to work out the aim from the questions, people answer what they think the researcher wants • Researcher bias: the researcher interpreting open question responses in a way that confirms their beliefs (this can be unintentional) • Invesigator effects: the personal characteristics or the body language of the interviewer may influence participants answers

Answer 10

A method used to analyse data; a correlations used to analyse the association between two co-variables

Answer 11

• No variables are manipulated unlike experimental designs that manipulate the IV and measure the resultant change on the DV, instead two co-variables are measured and compared to look for a relationship so no causal conclusions can be drawn

Answer 12

• Scattergrams • Correlation coefficient- is a measure if the extent of a correlation that exist ls between two co-variables, it has a numerical value between +1 and -1 indicating the strength of the relationship (+1= a strong positive correlation and -1= a strong negative correlation) - Positive correlation- when the two variables increase/decrease together - Negative correlation- as one variable increases, the other decreases - Zero correlation- no relationship between the two variables They’re calculated using statistical tests such a Spearman’s Rho and test-retest reliability is measured in this way

Answer 13

+ Justify further research as they can highlight potential causal relationships that can be tested with experimental methods to discover cause and effect relationships + Can be used when it’s unethical or impractical to manipulate research + Correlation coefficient is useful in describing the direction and strength of relationships - Correlation doesn’t show causation: we don’t know which variables impacting the other or if the relationships caused by a third variable - Correlating can be misused or misinterpreted eg. in the media relationships between variables are sometimes presented as causal facts when they aren’t (eg. high crime rate in single parent families)

Answer 14

• Range of data collected from an individual, group or institution • Case studies looking at behaviour over a short period of time are called ‘snapshots’, while longitudinal case studies follow participants over many years to show behavioural change over time but are difficult to continue over the long term due to finding/researchers dying of old age • Data’s mainly collected using interviews and observations, but content analysis can be performed on written evidence and even experimental techniques can be used • Case studies are generally conducted on psychological unusual individuals, unusual events, organisational practices or a typical individual within a demographic

Answer 15

The unusual behaviour of individuals with brain damage indicating the area that’s damaged is in some way related to that behavioural function

Answer 16

• Clinical psychology: the case of Tan (Louis Leborgne) could only say the word ‘Tan’ while other functions were unaffected, helped identify Broca’s area • Psychodynamic psychology: Freud used a number of case studies to support his theory of psychodynamics. He suggested ‘little Hans’ fear of horses represented his fear of his father, helping to support the idea of the Oedipus complex • Childhood psychology: The case of ‘Genie’ who was deprived of care until 13 years old and never developed normal communication

Answer 17

+ Results of one unusual case study can upend an established theory + Often the only way to investigate very unusual/extreme human behaviour that can’t be replicated in labs due to ethics + In depth, mostly qualitative data increases realism and provides high detail and valid insights, taking a holistic approach + Been used to develop hypothesis that can then be tested experimentally eg. Broca’s area - Interviews form a large part and can be prone to social desirability bias or memories may be inaccurate - Findings can’t be generalised as unknown factors can contribute to behaviour - Subjects are unique so exact replications to check reliability aren’t possible - Researcher bias as they decide what findings to include/exclude and may only include data that confirms their theory or may lose objectivity after knowing the subject

Answer 18

• An indirect observational method that’s used to analyse human behaviour by studying human artefacts (things people make) • Content analysis is often the written word (non-numerical qualitative data) or transcripts of spoken word that’s then transformed into quantitative data

Answer 19

• Decide a research question and select a sample from a larger quantity of all possible data (eg. books, tweets) • Coding, the researcher decides on categories/coding units to be recorded (eg. occurrences of particular words) based on the research question • Work through the data, reading the sample and tallying the number of times pre-determined categories appeared • Data analysis can be performed on quantitative data to look for patterns • Test for reliability through test-retest reliability by running the same content analysis and comparing data or through inter-rater reliability where a second rater mirrors the process and compares data • How the closely the two sets of data match in either method is assessed with a test of correlation such as Spearman’s rho. A correlation of 0.8 or higher is usually accepted to show the data’s reliable

Answer 20

+ Artefacts are usually not created for research purposes but are taken from the real world (easy to gather samples) meaning high external validity and findings are generalisable to real-world situations + Other researchers should be able to replicate a content analysis using the same coding units/behavioural categories and access to the same sample - Researcher/observer bias as researchers must interpret subjective texts and tend to interpret them in a way that supports their view - Data may lack validity- wasnt created under controlled conditions (made for research) eg. historical records like diaries may contain inaccuracies and not all diaries have equal chance of surviving to the present

Answer 21

• Researchers start by attempting to identify the deeper meaning of the text by reading it first and allowing themes to emerge • Themes are not pre-determined by the researcher but emerge from the text

Answer 22

• Collect a text or turn recordings into a text through transcription • Read text/transcript first to spot patterns that can be coded and collected • Re-read the text/transcriptions looking for emergent themes

Answer 23

+ Artefacts are usually not created for research purposes but are taken from the real world (easy to gather samples) meaning high external validity and findings are generalisable to real-world situations + Other researchers should be able to replicate a thematic analysis using the same coding units/behavioural categories and access to the same sample + Theories come after discovering themes so this potentially removes researcher bias - Data may lack validity- wasnt created under controlled conditions (made for research) eg. historical records like diaries may contain inaccuracies and not all diaries have equal chance of surviving to the present

Answer 24

• A clearly phrased general statement about what the investigator intends to research • An aim can include the purpose of the study and is phrased as a question or statement that identifies what the researchers intending to investigate and why

Answer 25

• A precise, testable statement including levels of independent and dependant variable or both co-variables for a correlational study. • These variables must be operationalised. Operationalised variables are carefully stated, demonstrating exactly how they’re measured (E.g. the *number* of words recalled) • Hypotheses are not predictions, they’re statements of fact that the research accepts or rejects based on the data they collect

Answer 26

Aims state what the researchers intending to investigate and potentially why, whereas a hypothesis is formulated by the researcher to communicate exactly how the research will be conducted

Answer 27

• The Null hypothesis (N0) states there’s no change (difference) in the measurement of the dependant variable as a result of the manipulation in the independent variable • The alternate (research) hypothesis (N1) states that there is a change (difference) in measurement of the dependant variable as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable. This can be written as a: -Non directional (two-tailed) hypothesis that states there’s a difference in the measurement of the dependant variable but not the direction the results will go -Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis that states there is a difference in the measurement of the dependant variable and states the direction the results will go. Directional hypotheses are only used by researchers if there is previous research that suggests which way the results are likely to go

Answer 28

• Data’s collected and statistical testing is conducted on said data providing evidence • If the evidence is strong enough, the Null hypothesis can be rejected and the alternate hypothesis is accepted. If not, the Null hypothesis is accepted and the alternate hypothesis is accepted

Answer 29

Experimental hypotheses state there will or won’t be a difference while alternative hypotheses state there will or won’t be a correlation

Answer 30

• The difference between the target population and the sample • We use sampling to make valid generalisations about behaviour being studied. We use methods to minimise costs while maximising generalisability

Answer 31

• Every member of the group that the investigator plans to study • As the whole target population can’t be studied, researchers conduct their experiments on a smaller sample of participants, taken from the larger target population: this is generalisation. • Whether the results can be generalised or not depends on how representative the sample is of the target population, meaning the sample used in the study share the same characteristics with members of the target population

Answer 32

• Random sampling • Systematic sampling • Opportunity sampling • Volunteer sampling • Stratified sampling

Answer 33

• Each member of the target population has a mathematically equal chance of being in the sample 1. The researcher needs a full list of the entire target population 2. All names are written down and placed in a container or assigned a unique number and these numbers are entered into a random number generator 3. Names are drawn/generated randomly and selected from the sample + No researcher bias as they can’t choose participants they want + Quick method of there’s a pre-existing list -If not, it’s difficult/time consuming to get a full list of names -Potentially get an unrepresentative sample by chance • The effects of chance can be reduced (not eliminated) by using a larger sample size and using statistical analysis of data including tests such as Chi-squared, correlation coefficient and students T-test. These tests can be used to see the extent that random chance has influenced the data

Answer 34

• Chi-squared • Correlation Coefficient • Students T-test

Answer 35

• Every ‘nth’ participant is chosen from a list of the target population 1. The researcher needs a full list of the entire target population 2. The researcher reads down the list selecting every ‘nth’ participant until a sample is chosen + No researcher bias as they can’t choose participants they want + Quick method of there’s a pre-existing list -If not, it’s difficult/time consuming to get a full list of names -Potentially get an unrepresentative sample by chance

Answer 36

• The researcher directly asks available members of the target population to take part. Likely individuals the researcher has easy access to or is familiar with 1. Researcher directly asks members from within the target population (that they have access to) to take part in research 2. Any individuals who agree to take part are added to the sample until the required number’s met + Fastest way to get a sample -Researcher bias -Unlikely to be a representative sample

Answer 37

• AKA self selecting sample, participants offer to take part after finding out about research (not asking directly) 1. Advertisements are placed where they’re likely to be seen by members of the target population 2. The adverts will include contact details and the researcher will enroll the volunteer into the sample when contacted + Easy sample to collect -Volunteer bias; not generalisable to the wider population

Answer 38

• By selecting from within strata, characteristics of participants with the sample are in the same proportion as the target population 1. Strata/subgroups are identified along with their proportion in the target population (e.g. gender/ ethnicity 2. Random sampling is used to select the number of participants required from within each stratum (e.g. 90% brown eyes and 10% blue eyes means 9 people with brown eyes and 1 person with blue eyes in a 10 participant sample) + Sample’s representative + Random sampling avoids researcher bias -Time consuming to identify properties of starts and randomly sample these -Not every characteristic can be included, researcher bias in that the researcher decides which strata are important

Answer 39

• Small scale practice investigations carried out prior to research • The results of the study are irrelevant, the researcher is using the study to identify problems with the design, method or analysis so they can be rectified. • Participants can also suggest appropriate changes such as demand characteristics or ethical concerns that may arise. These can be dealt with accordingly

Answer 40

• To check the independent variable has been manipulated correctly and is operationalised • To check the method method to measure to dependant variable has been used • To check the test/measure is appropriate • To check the participants understand the instructions and what they’re required to do (this can be asked at the end) • To ask participants about their experience of taking part; did it run smoothly, what changes would they make • To save time and money if necessary changes can be made to the procedure

Answer 41

• Refers to how we use the participant sample in combination with different levels of dependant variable and how we allocate those participants to conditions in an experiment • There are two different conditions; the experimental condition and the control condition and three experimental designs of which we must pick the most appropriate: 1. Independent Groups Design (IGD) 2. Repeated Measures Design (RMD) 3. Matched Pairs Design (MPD)

Answer 42

• Different participants are used in each condition so each participant only completes one condition. Participants are randomly allocated to each condition to avoid researcher bias • Produces unrelated data, the individual data points in one condition cannot be paired with any of the data points in the other condition + Reduced chance of demand characteristics as participants only complete 1 condition + No order effects + Time saved from random allocation -More participants are required -Participant variables- extraneous variable of more participants with a certain characteristic being assigned to one condition

Answer 43

• The same participants complete all conditions, each participant acts as their own control and is tested against themselves • Produces related data, each participants score (data point) can be paired with a data point (their own score) in the other condition • Counter balancing attempts to control for, but doesn’t eliminate, order effects where the first condition influences the performance of the second condition. • Counter balancing uses an ABBA format, half the participants complete condition A first, and B second and the other half complete B first and A second. + No individual differences/group differences + One participant produces twice as much data (2 sets of results) so less participants are needed -Increased chance of demand characteristics- more likely to figure out the research aim because the first condition influences the second condition

Answer 44

• Different participants complete the conditions so each participant completes one condition. • Participants are first ranked on a characteristic (e.g. aggression) and then the top two, and each of the following two are randomly assigned to separate conditions • Produces related data, each participant’s data point in one condition can be paired with the data point of the participant matched with them in the other condition + No order effects + Reduced chance of demand characteristics + Reduced participant variables (- But doesny remove them) -Time consuming -Twice as many participants as repeated measures design

Answer 45

• Independent variables are the variables the researcher manipulates in experimental studies. The variations of the IV form the conditions of the study (X-axis) • The dependant variable: researcher measures the change/difference in the DV in an experimental study (Y-axis) • Variables should be operationalised clearly stating exactly what the variable is and how it is measured • (IV: clearly express each level/ DV: include measurement scale (e.g. time in seconds) • In an experimental study, researchers can claim to have shown a causal relationship between the manipulation of the IV and the change in the DV

Answer 46

• Measurements made that are compared to see how they’re associated • In a correlational study, two co-variables are assessed for a relationship however it’s not necessarily a causal relayionship

Answer 47

• A variable other than the IV that changes systematically between the levels of IV, so when the IV is changed the confounding variable also changes • This hides the IV’s true (lack of) effect on the DV as measurements are influenced by the confounding variable. It’s an extraneous variable that wasn’t controlled on the experiment.

Answer 48

• Any variable outside of the IV that could influence the measurement of the DV. This could cause an error, potentially showing a causal relationship between the IV and DV that isn’t there or hiding one that is

Answer 49

• Demand characteristics: If the participant thinks they’ve discovered the research aim, they may alter behaviour to what the researcher wants • Participant variables: A difference in performance between two groups in an IGD that isn’t related to the IV. Occurs if more people in one group have knowledge or traits that affect results than the other(s) • Situational variables: Environmental factors in one condition and not the other • Order effects: In a RMD where completing the first condition may affect the performance of the second condition

Answer 50

• Demand characteristics: Single and double blind trials; a single blind trial is where the participant doesn’t know the aim and a double blind trail is when the researcher testing them also doesn’t know the aim • Participant variables: Random allocation removes bias in assigning participants or materials to different levels of IV (not 100% effective as the same affect can occur due to chance) • Situational variables: Standardised procedures • Order effects: Counter balancing • Extraneous variables can be controlled through pilot studies to eliminate them and peer review to identify extraneous or confounding variables

Answer 51

• Research is expected to adhere to a code of ethics published by the British Psychological Society (BPS) in the UK that’s designed to inform and assist members in the practical and professional application of society • Informed Consent • Deception • Right to Withdraw • Protection from Harm • Confidentiality and Anonymity • Debrief

Answer 52

• Providing participants with sufficient details of an investigation so they can make an informed decision as to whether they wish to participate or not • Parental consent is required for people under 18 and consent cannot be obtained from individuals under the influence of drugs or alcohol or those deemed mentally unfit to give consent (severe mental illnesses) • Revealing the true aims of the study when asking for consent can lead to demand characteristics which reduces the internal validity of the research. This can be avoided by using alternatives to informed consent: 1. Presumptive Consent: Asks a group similar to the sample if they’d agree to the research and if they would it’s assumed participants would also agree 2. Prior General Consent: participants agree to a long list of potential features not knowing which aspects will be part of this study 3. Retroactive Consent: Researcher asks for consent after the study and if the participant doesn’t agree their data is destroyed

Answer 53

• Withholding information or misleading participants is unacceptable, especially if they’re likely to object or show unease once debriefed. • Participants shouldn’t be mislead without scientific or medical justification. Sometimes it’s necessary for participants to not know the purpose of the study to get realistic results (e.g. research into conformity such as Asch, 1955) If research requires deception: • An ethics committee (group of experts) will conduct a cost-benefit analysis • It should be explained in the debrief as well as in the aim of the study or any other groups. • It should be checked that no harm was done and offer counselling or other assistance if it was. • They should be reminded they’re still able to withdraw their data and ensure confidentiality of findings

Answer 54

The true value of the study to society often isn’t known for many years and so a cost-benefit analysis can be difficult to accurately conduct

Answer 55

Participants should be aware they can leave the study at any time and can withdraw their data after a study is finished. It’s important participants are informed of this in the consent form, standardised instructions and then reminded in the debrief

Answer 56

Researchers have a responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation

Answer 57

• Participant data shouldn’t be disclosed to anyone unless agreed in advance. Numbers should be used instead of names in published research papers • Confidentiality means that the data can be traced back to the names, whereas anonymous data cannot be, as the researchers collect no names. Confidential data is preferable if participants are followed up later

Answer 58

• All relevant details of a study should be explained to participants before and after. A debrief is improtant if deception’s been used but doesn’t provide justification for unethical aspects • Participants should leave the study in no worse state than they started it