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research methods Flashcards

1
Q

what is an independent variable

A

variable that you manipulatein a peice of research. so effect on DV can be measured

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2
Q

what is a dependant variable

A

The one that you measure, any effect on dv should be caused by change in IV

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3
Q

operalization

A

defining variables in terms of how they can be measure

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4
Q

hypothesis

A

clear,testeable and prescisestatement stating relationship between variables

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5
Q

directional

A

predicting the direction of the effect of IV on DV

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6
Q

non directional

A

predicting the effect but NOT the direction.

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7
Q

aim

A

**simply a statement* about aims of investigation.

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8
Q

extraneous variable

A
  • variable other than IV(change) that may effect the Dv if not controlled
  • eg age of pp
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9
Q

confounding variable

A
  • when EV has not been properly controlled and interferes with DV(results)
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10
Q

situational variables

A
  • EVs linked to the situation rather than pps
    eg, temperature
  • eg intructions,lighting,temp,noise
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11
Q

participent variables

A
  • EVs linked to participents rather than situation
  • eg age,experience,gender,personality
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12
Q

investigator effects

A
  • Any effect on DV(measure) as a result of the investigators behaviour
  • eg smilimg or nodding (intentional or subconcously)
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13
Q

Demand characteristics

A
  • any cues from research or situation to the pp which may lead to pp chaning behaviour
  • eg knowledge of study,order of tasks
  • screw you or please you effect
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14
Q

types of validity

face validity

A
  • whether it looks subjectivley promising
  • appears to measure what it is supposed to.
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15
Q

concurrent validity

A
  • extent to which a psycological measure compares to a similar existing measure
  • results obtained should either match or be closely similar to the results of a well established and recognised test.
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16
Q

temporal validilty

A
  • generalisability to other historial times and eras.
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17
Q

ecological validity

A
  • extent to which findings can be generalised to other situations and settings
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18
Q

ways of improving validity

A
  • using a control group in experimental research to asses whether changes in DV were due to effect on IV
  • standardised procedures
  • single&double blind trials to achieve the same aim
  • questionaires(assuring pps all data is anonymous)
  • observations
  • qualitative methods-higher ecological validity
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19
Q

social desirablity bias

A
  • type of response bias tendancy to answer questions in ways that represtent themselves in socially acceptable terms or attempt to gain approval from others
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20
Q

randomisation

A
  • use of chance to reduce effects of bias from investigator effects
  • eg for design of matirials,deciding order of conditions,selection of pps.
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21
Q

random allocation

A
  • random allocation of pps to experimental and control conditions in an extremely important process in research.
  • decreases systematic error
  • individual dfferences less likely to affect results
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22
Q

experimental designs

Independant group design

A
  • pps allocated into different groups
  • each group represent one experimental condition
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23
Q

experimental designs

repeated measures design

A
  • all pps allocated to all groups
  • take part in all conditions
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24
Q

experimental designs

matched pairs design

A
  • pps take part in only one experimental condition
  • eg intelligence,gender,age
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25
Q

experimental designs

How do we deal with issues in MPD&IGD

A
  • random allocation eg put names in hat and pick
  • counterbalancing attempt to control order of effects in RMD
  • ABBA technique half take part in A then B half take part in B then A
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26
Q

experimental designs

order of effects

A
  • when pps are tested more than once in repeated measures
  • can lead to better performance due to practice
  • or tiredness and bordem
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27
Q

experimental designs

how do we deal with issues in repeated measures design

A
  • counter balancing reduces order of effects
    *
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28
Q

experimental designs

problem with independant variables

A
  • variation betweenpps can effect DV
  • eg age,race,socialclass
  • problem for independant measures control this by random assignmement
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29
Q

types of experiments

Labortary

A
  • takes place in a controlled environment
  • manipulating Iv recording effect on DV
  • :)easier to replicate, standardised procedure
  • :(may produce unatural behaviour,low ecological validity
  • demand characteristic,investigator effects
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30
Q

types of experiment

Field

A
  • done in every day life environment of pps
  • still manipulates IV but IRL setting
  • cannot really control EV
  • :)behaviour more likely to refelct real life,higher ecological validity
    *:( difficult to replicate&ethical issues as no consent
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31
Q

types of experiments

Natural

A
  • done in every day life of pps but NO CONTROL over IV
  • takes advantage of pre existing Iv that wouldve happend anyway
  • :) high ecological validity,can provide opportunities for reasearch that may have not been taken for ethical issues
  • :( naturally occuring event may only happen rarely,difficult to replicate
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32
Q

types of experiment

Quasi

A
  • contain a naturally occuring IV(change)
  • eg difference in people that already exists
  • :) carried under controlled variables,easier to replicate, control on EV&IV effect and cause established.
  • :( maybe confounding variables(when EV not properly controlled), cannot randomly allocate pps.
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33
Q

sampling techniques

population

A

general population in whole world

34
Q

sampling technoques

target population

A

large group pf individuals researcher may be interested in

35
Q

sampling techniques

sample

A

group of people who take part in reasearch drawn from target population

36
Q

sampling techniques

opportunity sampling

A
  • taking sample from people available at the time
  • &fit for criteria
  • :) easy and inexpensive to carry out
  • :( may not be representive,could be subjective to bias
37
Q

sampling techniques

volunteer sampling

A
  • pps select themselves to be apart of sample
  • :) easy and less time consuming
  • :( asking may attract certain people leading to bias and less valid results
38
Q

sampling techniques

random sampling

A
  • everyone has equal change being selected
  • eg ranomdly selected on computer
  • :) no bias or researcher influence
  • :( not representive of whole population
39
Q

sampling techniques

stratified sampling

A
  • people in certain subgroups within target pop
  • randomly selected in proportional amounts
  • :) increases chances of attaining representive sample
  • :( takes more rescourses&times
40
Q

sampling techniques

systematic sampling

A
  • listing all then selecting the nth person till you reach desired population size
  • eg every 4th
  • :) unbiased if randomised representitive data
  • :( if not randomised can be biased
41
Q

Bias

A
  • if certain groups maybe over or underestimated within sample selected
  • eg too many young people
42
Q

generalisation

A
  • extent to which the findings and conclusions from a study can be applied to a population
  • only possible if sample of of pps is **representitave ** of population.
43
Q

standardisation

A
  • using the same procedures for all pps
  • eg same environment,instructions and experience
44
Q
A
45
Q

ethical issues

BPS(british phsycological society) ethical issues

A
  • depection
  • protection from harm
  • informed consent
  • debreifing
  • right to withdraw
  • confitientiality
46
Q

ethical issues

informed consent

A
  • making pps aware of aims of research,procedure and their rights
  • they can choose whether to take part or not

how to deal

  • ensure pps have been given all info that may affect their descision
  • under 16=parental consent signature
47
Q

ethical issues

deception

A
  • deliberetly misleading or witholding information from pps
    *informed consent not given

how to deal

  • need for deception should be approved by ethics comitee
  • debriefed at end of study
48
Q

ethical issues

protection from harm

A
  • pps not placed in any more risk than in daily lives
  • protected from physical&physcological harm
  • eg embaressed,stress,pressure
  • they have the right to withdraw

how to deal

  • at the end of study full debreif of the aims
  • given right to withdraw data
  • reassured behaviour is typical&normal
  • may require councilling researcher may provide
49
Q

ethical issues

privacy&confidentiality

A
  • pps have right to control information about themselves
  • right of privacy extends to where study took place
  • geological location not named.

how to deal

  • maintain anonymity eg numbers or initials of pps
  • during debrefing pps reminded data is protected throughout process
50
Q

ethical issues

debreifing

A
  • post research interview inform pps true nature of study
51
Q

ethical issues

right to withdraw

A
  • pps have the right to withdraw themselves&data at any time.
52
Q

pilot studies

what is a pilot study

A
  • a small scale version of an investigation which is done before the real investigation is undertaken
  • allow potential problems to be identified
  • allows money&time saved in the long run

  • self reports orinterviews important to reword or remove wods that may be ambigious orconfusing.
53
Q

pilot studies

what is important to check?

A
  • timings
  • understanding of instructions
  • ethical issues
  • fatigue
  • damand characteristics and investigator effects
  • equipment functioning
    *
54
Q

single blind procedure

A
  • researcher does not tell pps if they are being given a test treatment or a control treatment
  • avoid demand characteristics
    *
55
Q

double blind procedure

A
  • **neither pp or experimentor ** knows who is recieving particular treatment
  • prevents bias due to demand characteristics or placebo effect
  • reduces investigator effects
56
Q

control groups&conditions

A
  • set as a baseline resulys from experimental condition are compared to this one
  • is change is siginificantly greater easier to conclude it was the effect of IV.
57
Q

observational techniques

Naturalistic observation

A
  • watching and recording behaviour in a natural setting wouldve taken place normally
  • people expected to be observed

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) high ecological validity as its naturally occuring behaviour
  • :( cannot be replicated tocheck reliability as researcher is not in control of variables
58
Q

observational techniques

controlled observation

A
  • watching&recording behaviour from a structured envioronment
  • less natural as ps may be aware they are in a study.

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) more control over extraneous&confounding variabl,can be replicated to check reliability
  • :( low ecological validity behaviour in artificial environment leading to demand characteristics
59
Q

observational techniques

Covert observation

covert(undercover)

A
  • pps are unaware they are being watched or observed
  • without consent
  • observer usually tucked away from view

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) natural behaviour decreases investigator effects & removes demand characteristics
  • :( ethical issues could be invading pps privacy as they didnt give consent
60
Q

observational techniques

Overt observation

A
  • behaviour is observed and pps are aware they are being watched
  • they have given full consent

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) ethically acceptable since conent is given
  • :( can lead to demand characteristics, and more likely to have unatural behaviour through investigator effects through social desirability bias
61
Q

observational techniques

participent observation

A
  • observer becomes part of group that is being observed
    *

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) more insightful increasing validity of findings,unlikelyto overlook or miss any behavious
  • :( could lead to researcher bias as they may lose nobjectivity their behaviour moight influence pps.
62
Q

observational techniques

non participent observation

A
  • observes from a distance not apart of group being observed,remains seperate
  • moreobjective way

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) can be less bias,less likley to identify with pps
  • :( due to lack of proximity may overlook or miss behaviour, or open to observr bias eg steryotypes that they are aware of.
63
Q

observational designs

behavioural catogories

A
  • when target behaviour being observed is broken up into more prescise components that are observable&measureable

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) more structured and objective
  • :( difficult to make clear,all forms of behaviour must be listed can be unambigious
64
Q

observational design

unstructured observation

everything

A
  • consists of continious recording where researcher writes everything they see
    *

stregths&weaknesses

  • :) more richness&depth of detail increasing validity
  • :( risk of observer bias,only see the behaviour they’re interested in,producing qualititative data
65
Q

observational design

structured

A
  • necessary to simplify target behaviours
  • reasearcher quantifies what they are observing with a predetermined list of behaviours&sampling mehthods

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) quantitative data produced easy to analyse and compare with other data,less risk of observer bias
  • :( difficult to recieve high interobserver reliability,as filling predetermined lists is subjective
66
Q

observational designs

time sampling(structured)

A
  • recording/tallying behaviour within a certain **timeframe ** that is predetermined before study

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) less time consuming as it reduces numbe rof observations,more structured&systematic
  • :( important details can go missed data unpresenntitative of whole observation
67
Q

observational designs

event sampling(structured)

A
  • counting/tallying when particular behaviour is carried out.

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) useful for infrequent behaviour,researcher still picks up behaviour that doesnt occur in regualr intervals
  • :( important details of behaviour may be overlooked as its complex,counting errors,effecting validity
68
Q

self report techniques&design

self report technique

A
  • method in which a person is asks to state or explainir own feelings,opinions/experiences related to a given topic
69
Q

self report techniques&designs

questionnaire

A
  • set of written questions used to asses a persons thoughts/experiences

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) cost effective,saves time&money,easy to analyse
  • :( social desirability bias (changing answers to present themselve better)
  • :( acquiesnce bias(tendancy to agree with items regardless how they feel)
  • no researcher present unable to clear up misunderstandings
70
Q

self report techniques&designs

open questions

A
  • allow pps to elaborate on their answers and give more detail

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) qualitative data rich in detail
  • :( difficult to analyse
71
Q

self report techniques&designs

closed questions

A
  • offers a fixed number of responses eg choosing an option “yes or no”
    *

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) quantative data easier to analyse,saves money
  • :( lacks depth
72
Q

self report techniques&designs

interview

A
  • live encounter where interviewer is asks a set of qs to asses interviewees thoughts/experiences
  • qs may be preset or may develop
73
Q

self report techniques&designs

structured interview

A
  • predetermined list of qs
  • asked in a fixed order

strengths&weaknesses

  • :) easy to replicate,high reliability,quick
  • :( cant elaborate, limited richness of data
74
Q

self report techniques&designs

unstructured interview

A
  • free flowing questions
  • general aim, interviewee encuraged to expand on answers.

* :) greater flexibility,greater insight on interviewee
* :( analysi

75
Q

self report techniques&design

designing interviews

A
  • standardised list of qs
  • rapport (establishing reationship)
  • ethics
  • interview scedual-qs intent to cover
  • treat interviewees with confidence
76
Q

self report design

likert scales

A
  • indicates agreement or otherwise
  • statement using 5 points
77
Q

self report design

rating scales

A
  • respondents identify a value that represents their feeling about a certain topic
78
Q

self report designs

fixed choice option

A
  • includes a list of possible options
  • respondents requires to pick what applies to them.
79
Q

self report designs

writing good questions

A
  • overuse of jargon (using technical terms where those within particular feild or area will know)
  • emotive language and leading qs(attitude toawrds topic is clear)
  • doublebarrelled questions/double negatives(two qs in one,or difficukt to decifer) e.g i am not unhappy in my job(agree or disagree)
80
Q

role of peer review

A
  • allocation of research funding
  • assess the quality&relevance of research
  • suggesting improvements
  • assessing the research rating of university departments
81
Q

evaluation of peer review

A
  • not always possible to find appropriate expert
  • publication bias research may publish significant positive results, result can create false impression of current state of pyscology if editors are selective/bias.
  • burying ground breaking research-may surpress research that might contradict the views of reviewer.rearch that poses a challenge or fresh/new less likely to be passed.
82
Q

psycology&the economy

A

*

physcology (4 decks)

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