Research methods

Question 1

Experimental method

Answer 1

Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependant variable.

Question 2

Experimental method
Aims

Answer 2

Aims are developed from theories, in psychology the theories tend to be much more sophisticated and are based on many hours of research. Aims are general statements that describe the purpose of an investigation.

Question 3

Experimental method
Hypothesis

Answer 3

A statement that is made at the start of the study and clearly describes the relationship between variables stated by the theory.

Question 4

Experimental method
Directional hypothesis

Answer 4

The researcher makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated between 2 conditions or 2 groups of people.

Question 5

Experimental method
Non-directional hypothesis

Answer 5

States that there is a difference between conditions or groups of people, but unlike a directional hypothesis, the nature of the difference is not specified.

Question 6

Experimental method
Deciding what hypothesis to use

Answer 6

Researchers tend to use a directional hypothesis when a theory or the findings of a previous research study suggest a particular outcome. When there is no theory or previous research, or findings from earlier studies are contradictory, researchers use a non-directional hypothesis.

Question 7

Experimental method
independent and dependent variables

Answer 7

IV is some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured.
DV is the variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV. All other variables that might potentially affect the DV should remain constant in a properly run experiment. This is so the researcher can be confident that any change in DV was due to IV.

Question 8

Experimental method
Levels of the IV

Answer 8

There are 2 levels of the IV: the control and the experimental condition. A well-written hypothesis should make it easy to tell what the IV and DV are.

Question 9

Types of experiment
Operationalised variables

Answer 9

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
Many of the things that psychologists are interested in are often not easy to define. Therefore one of the main tasks for the researcher to do is ensure that the variables being investigated are as measurable as possible.

Question 10

Research issues
Extraneous variables

Answer 10

Any variable, other than the IV, that may affect the DV if it is not controlled. EVs are essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV. Many EVs are straightforward to control such as the age of p’s and lighting of the lab. These may ‘muddy’ the experimental water so to speak but don’t confound the findings of the study. They may just make it harder to detect a result.

Question 11

Research issues
Confounding variables

Answer 11

A kind of EV but the key feature is that a confounding variable varies systematically with the IV. Therefore we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable.

Question 12

Research issues
Demand characteristics

Answer 12

Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation. They may also look for cues to tell them how they should behave in the experimental situation. They may act in a way that they think is expected and over-perform to please the experimenter (the “please-U effect”), or may deliberately under-perform to sabotage the results of the study (the “screw-U effect”).

Question 13

Research issues
Investigator effects

Answer 13

Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process.

Question 14

Research issues
Randomisation

Answer 14

The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions. This is in an attempt to control investigator effects.

Question 15

Research issues
Standardisation

Answer 15

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study. This includes standardised instructions that are read to each participant. Such standardisation means that non-standardised changes in procedure do not act as extraneous variables.

Question 16

Experimental designs

Answer 16

The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

Question 17

Experimental designs
Independent groups

Answer 17

Two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment. If there are 2 levels of the IV, this means that all participants experience one level of the IV. The performance of 2 groups would then be compared.

Question 18

Experimental designs
Repeated measures

Answer 18

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment. Each participant would first experience condition A, then would later be teste again in condition B. The 2 mean scores from both conditions would be compared to see if there was a difference.

Question 19

Experimental designs
Counterbalancing

Answer 19

An attempt to control order effects in a repeated measures design. In counterbalancing, half of the participants take part in condition A, then B, and the other half take part in condition B, then A. Sometimes referred to as the ABBA technique.
As with random allocation, counterbalancing does not remove or prevent the problem but attempts to balance out the effects.

Question 20

Experimental designs
Matched pairs

Answer 20

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is assigned condition A and the other condition B. This is an attempt to control for the confounding variable of participant variables and often necessitates the use of a pre-test if matching is to be effective.

Question 21

Types of experiment
Laboratory experiment

Answer 21

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV, and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.

Question 22

Type of experiment
Field

Question 23

Types of experiment
Natural

Question 24

Types of experiement
Quasi

Question 25

Observational techniques

Question 26

Types of observation
Naturalistic

Question 27

Types of observation
Controlled

Question 28

Types of observation
Covert

Question 29

Types of observation
Overt

Question 30

Types of observation
Participant

Question 31

Types of observation
non-participant

Question 32

Self report techniques

Question 33

Self report techniques
Questionnaires

Question 34

Self report techniques
Interviews

Question 35

Self report techniques
structured

Question 36

Self report techniques
unstructured

Question 37

Correlations

Question 38

Correlations
Analysis of the relationship between co-variables

Question 39

Correlations
the difference between correlations and experiments

Question 40

Content analysis

Question 41

Case studies

Question 42

Independent groups
Strengths

Answer 42

Order effects are not a problem whereas they are for repeated measures designs. Participants are also less likely to guess the aims of the study.

Question 43

Independent groups weaknesses

Answer 43

The biggest issue with independent groups is that the ps who occupy the different groups are not the same in terms of participant variables. If a researcher finds a mean difference between the groups on the DV this may be more to do with participant variables than the effects of the IV. These findings may act as a confounding variable, reducing the validity of the findings. To deal with this, researchers use random allocation.
Independent group designs are less economical than repeated measures as each participant contributes a single result only. Twice as many participants would be needed to produce equivalent data to that collected in a repeated measures design. This increases the time/money spent on recruiting participants.

Question 44

Repeated measures
Strengths

Answer 44

Participant variables are controlled (therefore higher validity) and fewer participants are needed (therefore less time spent recruiting them).

Question 45

Repeated measures
weaknesses

Answer 45

The biggest issue is that each participant has to do at least 2 tasks and the order of these tasks may be significant (ORDER EFFECTS). To deal with this, researchers use counterbalancing.
Order effects also arise because repeating 2 tasks could create boredom or fatigue that might cause deterioration in performance on the second task, so it matters what order tasks are in. Ps performance may also improve through the effects of practice so would perform better on the second task. Order acts as a confounding variable.
Is also likely that ps will work out the aim of the study when they experience all conditions of the experiment. For this reason, demand characteristics tend to be more of a feature of repeated measures designs than independent groups.

Question 46

Matched pairs
Weaknesses

Answer 46

Participants only take part in a single condition so order effects and demands characteristics are less of a problem. Although there is some attempt to reduce participant variables with this design, participants can never be matched exactly. Even when identical twins are used as matched pairs, there is still important differences between them that may affect the DV.
Matching may be time consuming and expensive, particularly if a pre-test is required, so this is less economical than other designs.