Approaches in psychology

Question 1

Wundt

Answer 1

1879 Wilhelm Wundt opened the first lab dedicated to psychological enquiry in Leipzig. His work is significant because it marked the start of scientific psychology, and separated it from its broader philosophical roots. His aim was to study the nature of human consciousness.

Question 2

Introspection

Answer 2

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations. Wundt trained participants to become self-aware enough to observe and report back their inner mental processes and emotional states within experiments when subjected to stimuli such as pictures or auditory tones and then describe what they experienced. Isolating the structure of consciousness is called structuralism. The stimuli that he and his workers were always presented in the same order and instructions in the same way.

Question 3

Emergence of psychology
1900’s Behaviourists

Answer 3

At the beginning of the 20th century, introspection was heavily questioned due to the subjective data that was produced, so general laws were difficult to establish. Watson proposed that a truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed objectively and measured. for this reason, behaviourists focussed on behaviours they could see using controlled experiments.

Question 4

Emergence of psychology
1950’s Cognitive approach

Answer 4

The digital revolution of the 1950s gave a new generation of psychologists a metaphor for studying the mind. Cognitive psychologists often compared the mind to a computer (eg MSM) and tested their predictions using experiments. The cognitive approach ensured that the study of the mind was a legitimate and highly scientific aspect of the discipline.

Question 5

Emergence of psychology
1980s Biological approach

Answer 5

Researchers within this biological area have taken advantage of technological advances to investigate physiological approaches as they happen. An example of this is using EEGs or fMRIs to study live activity in the brain. New methods such as genetic testing have also allowed us to better understand the relationship between genes and behaviour.

Question 6

Behaviourist approach
Classical conditioning

Answer 6

Classical conditioning is learning through association and was first demonstrated by Pavlov. he showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly present at the time they were given food. The dogs gradually learned to associate the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with the food (unconditioned stimulus) and would produce a salivation response every time they heard the bell. pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus can come to elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) through association.

Question 7

Behaviourist approach
Operant conditioning

Answer 7

Skinner suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment. behaviour is shaped by consequences
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed. REPEATS behaviour
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT occurs when an animal or human avoids something unpleasant. The outcome is a positive experience. REPEATS behaviour.
PUNISHMENT is an unpleasant consequence and behaviour. DECREASES behaviour.

Question 8

Behaviourist approach
Skinner’s research

Answer 8

Skinned conducted experiments using rats or pigeons in specially designed cages known as Skinner boxes. Every time the rat activated a lever, (or a bird pecked a disc) within the box, it was rewarded with a food pellet. The animal would then repeat this behaviour. POSITIVE
Also showed how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus, such as an electric shock. NEGATIVE

Question 9

Social learning theory
Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 9

Behaviour is learnt through imitation and observation.
Vicarious reinforcement is reinforcement that is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced in behaviour. Thus the learner observes a behaviour, but also its consequences. This is a key factor in imitation.

Question 10

Social learning theory
Imitation

Answer 10

Imitation is the copying of the behaviours of others. this generally only happens when the behaviour is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) rather than punished.

Question 11

Social learning theory
Role of mediational processes

Answer 11

Mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired. 4 mental (mediational) processes were identified by Bandura:
ATTENTION is the extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
RETENTION is how well the behaviour is remembered.
MOTOR REPRODUCTION is the ability the observer has to reproduce the behaviour.
MOTIVATION is the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
ARMM

Question 12

Social learning theory
identification

Answer 12

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model. The process of imitating a role model is called modelling. A person becomes a role model if they are seen to have similar characteristics to the observer and or have higher status. Role models may not necessarily be physically present in the environment, and this has important implications for the influence of the media on behaviour.

Question 13

Social learning theory
Bandura’s Research

Answer 13

Bandura et al recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult being aggressive towards a Bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. When these children were later observed playing with various toys, including a Bobo doll, they played much more aggressively towards the doll compared to children who had watched a non-aggressive adult.
Bandura and Walters also showed videos to children when an adult behaved aggressively toward the Bobo doll. One group of children saw the adult be praised for the behaviour. A second saw the adult be punished for their aggression towards the doll. A third control group saw adult aggression with no consequence. the first group was most aggressive, followed by the third, then the second.

Question 14

The cognitive approach
Internal mental processes

Answer 14

Argues that the internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically (contrasts behaviourist).
This has led to areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourists to be studied. These mental processes are ‘private’ (can’t be observed) operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response. They are studied indirectly by making inferences about what is going on in people’s minds based on behaviour.

Question 15

The cognitive approach
The role of schema

Answer 15

Schema are mental frameworks of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They act as a framework for information for the interpretation of incoming information and make it easier to process. As we get older, our schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated. they enable us to interpret lots of information quickly and this is useful as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. However they ay also distort our interpretations of sensory information, and lead to perceptual errors.

Question 16

The cognitive approach
Theoretical and computer models

Answer 16

Used to help understand internal mental processes.
Theoretical models are abstract whereas computer models are concrete things. One important THEORETICAL model is the information processing approach, which includes the multi-store model. This suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages. This is based on the way that computers function but a computer model would actually involve programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans. If they do then we can assume similar processes are going on in the human mind. Computational models have been useful in the development of thinking machines or AI.

Question 17

The cognitive approach
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 17

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes. mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions has a long history in psychology, such as Broca discovering that damage to the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production. With advanced brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans, scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes. Scanning techniques have also been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders. The focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded recently to include the use of computer-generated models designed to ‘read’ the brain, leading to the development of mind mapping techniques.

Question 18

The biological approach
Biological structures

Answer 18

The biological approach assumes that everything psychological is at first biological, so biological structures in the body must be studied. The mind lives in the brain meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a biological basis. Opposite of the cognitive approach, which view the mental processes of the brain and the physical brain as separate.

Question 19

The biological approach
Genetic basis of behaviour

Answer 19

Twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis. This is done by analysing concordance rates (the extent to which twins share the same characteristic). If it is genetic, then we would expect all identical (Monozygotic) twins to be concordant (share 100% of the same genes). this is not the case for non-identical twins (Dizygotic) twins who share about 50% of the same genes. In both cases environment is assumed to be constant (same).

Question 20

The biological approach
Neurochemical basis of behaviour

Answer 20

Neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain. Much of our thought and behaviour relies on the chemical transmission in the brain. This occurs using neurotransmitters. An imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain has been implicated in the possible cause of mental disorders (eg low neurotransmitter serotonin in OCD).

Question 21

The biological approach
Genotype and Phenotype

Answer 21

A person’s GENOTYPE is their genetic makeup and set up of genes they possess. A person’s PHENOTYPE is the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics. Despite having the same genes, the way identical twins’ phenotype is expressed is different. This shows what many biological psychologists would accept, that much of human behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nurture).

Question 22

The biological approach
Evolution and behaviour

Answer 22

The theory of natural selection helps to explain evolution in plants and animals. The main principle of this theory is that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival will continue in future generations. The possessor of these traits will be more likely to survive and reproduce to pass on these traits. If the individual survives but does not reproduce, the traits do not remain in the gene pool for successive generations.

Question 23

Wundt’s methods was scientific

Answer 23

One strength of Wundt’s work is that some of his methods were systematic and well-controlled (i.e. scientific). All introspections were recorded in the controlled environment of the lab, ensuring that possible extraneous variables were not a factor. Procedures and instructions were carefully standardised so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way.
This suggests that Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology, such as the behaviourist approach.

Question 24

The psychodynamic approach

Answer 24

Perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.

Question 25

The psychodynamic approach
The role of the unconscious

Answer 25

Freud suggested that most of our mind is made up of the unconscious. This is a storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on our behaviour. This also contains disturbing memories that have been repressed. Under the surface of the conscious is the preconscious which contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but can be accessed if desired.

Question 26

The psychodynamic approach
The structure of personality

Answer 26

Freud described personality as tripartite and was split into 3 parts.

Question 27

The psychodynamic approach
The id

Answer 27

The primitive part of our personality that operates on the pleasure principle (gets what it wants). It is made up of unconscious drives and instincts. Babies only have the id at birth and throughout life, the id is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification.

Question 28

The psychodynamic approach
The ego

Answer 28

Operates on the reality principle and helps to mediate between the id and superego. Ego develops around the age of 2 years and its role is to reduce the conflict between the demands of the id and the superego. Does this by employing defence mechanisms.

Question 29

The psychodynamic approach
The superego

Answer 29

Formed right at the end of the phallic stage around age 5. It is our internalised sense of right and wrong as it operates on the morality principle. It represents the moral standards of the child’s same-gender parent and punishes the ego for wrongdoing (through guilt).

Question 30

The psychodynamic approach
Defense mechanisms

Answer 30

Are unconscious and ensure that the ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas. They often involve some form of distortion of reality and as a long-term solution, they are regarded as psychologically unhealthy and undesirable. They can be accessed during dreams or slips of the tongue (parapraxes).

Question 31

The psychodynamic approach
Repression

Answer 31

A form of defence mechanism. Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind

Question 32

The psychodynamic approach
Denial

Answer 32

Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.

Question 33

The psychodynamic approach
Displacement

Answer 33

Transferring feelings fro the true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target.

Question 34

The psychodynamic approach
Psychosexual stages

Answer 34

Freud claimed that child development occurred in 5 stages. Each stage (not latency) is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to progress to the next. Any unresolved conflict will lead to fixation where the child gets ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts into adult life.

Question 35

The psychodynamic approach
Little Hans and the Oedipus complex

Answer 35

In the phallic stage, Freud claimed that little boys develop incestuous feelings toward their mother and a hatred for their rival in love - their father (OEDIPUS complex). Fearing that their father will castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender roles and moral values.
Girls of the same age experience penis envy: they desire their father - as the penis is the primary love object - and hate their mother (ELECTRA complex). They are thought to give up their desire for their father over time and replace this with a desire for a baby (identifying with their mother).

Question 36

The psychodynamic approach
Oral stage

Answer 36

0-1 years.
The focus of pleasure is the mouth, and mother’s breast also.
If unresolved leads to an oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical.

Question 37

The psychodynamic approach
Anal stage

Answer 37

1-3 years
The focus of pleasure is the anus. The child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.
If conflict is unresolved they can become anal retentive - perfectionist, obsessive etc or anal expulsive - thoughtless, mess etc

Question 38

The psychodynamic approach
Phallic stage

Answer 38

3-6 years
The focus of pleasure is the genital area
If conflict is unresolved can lead to a phallic personality - narcissistic and reckless.

Question 39

The psychodynamic approach
Latency stage

Answer 39

Earlier conflicts are repressed

Question 40

The psychodynamic approach
Genital stage

Answer 40

Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
If unresolved there may be difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.

Question 41

Humanistic psychology

Answer 41

An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determinism. Humanistic approach claims that human beings are self-determining and have free will.

Question 42

Humanistic psychology
Free will

Answer 42

The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external forces. People are still affected by external and internal influences but are also active agents who can determine their own development. As active agents, we are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws. Known as person-centred approach.

Question 43

Humanistic psychology
Self-actualisation

Answer 43

The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of. Represents the uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. All four lower levels of the hierarchy (‘deficiency levels’) must be met before the individual can work towards self-actualisation (a ‘growth need’). Humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human. Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-oriented. There are important psychological barriers that may prevent someone from reaching their full potential.

Question 44

Humanistic psychology
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 44

A five-level hierarchical sequence in which basic psychological needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as self-esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved. At the bottom are physiological needs such as food or water. Moving up the hierarchy, the next deficiency need is safety and security followed by love and belongingness then self-esteem. A person is only able to progress through the hierarchy once the current need in the sequence is met. Self-actualisation is the highest.

Question 45

Humanistic psychology
Focus on the self

Answer 45

Carl Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved, an individual’s concept of self (the way they see themselves) must be equivalent to or have congruence with their ideal self (the person they want to be). If too big a gap exists between the 2 selves the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self-worth that arise from incongruence.

Question 46

Humanistic psychology
Congruence

Answer 46

The aim of Rogerian therapy, when the self-concept and the ideal self are to broadly accord or match. If too big a gap exists between the 2 selves the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self-worth that arise from incongruence.

Question 47

Humanistic psychology
The role of conditions of worth

Answer 47

Rogers developed client-centred therapy - also called counselling to help people cope with the problems of everyday living. He claimed that many of the issues we experience as adults, such as worthlessness and low self-esteem have their roots in childhood and can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard (lack of unconditional love) from parents. A parent who sets boundaries or limits on their love for their child (conditions of worth) by claiming “I will only love you if..” is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future. Thus, Rogers saw one of his roles as an effective therapist as being able to provide his clients with the unconditional positive regard that they failed to receive as children.

Question 48

Humanistic psychology
The influence of counselling psychology

Answer 48

Roger’s client-centred therapy is an important form of modern-day psychology. It has led to the general approach of counselling which is applied to many settings today. Rogers referred to those in therapy as clients rather than patients as he saw the individual as the expert on their condition. The therapy is not directed by the therapist (non-directive) and the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmosphere. For Rogers, an effective therapist should provide the client with genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard. The aim is to increase the person’s feelings of self-worth, reduce the level of incongruence and help the person become a fully functioning person. Roger’s work transformed psychotherapy and introduced a variety of counselling techniques. In the UK and US, it is also used in education, health social work, and industry. The therapy has been praised as a forward-looking and effective approach that focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past. However, much like psychoanalysis, it is best applied to the treatment of ‘mild’ psychological conditions, such as anxiety or low self-worth.

Question 49

Comparison of approaches
Views on development

Answer 49

The psychodynamic approach presents the most coherent theory of development, tying its concepts and processes to specific (psychosexual) stages that are determined by age.
Stage theories within the cognitive approach have contributed to our understanding of child development. Eg as part of their intellectual development, children form increasingly complex concepts (schemas) as they get older.
Maturation is an important principle within the biological approach whereby genetically determined changes in a child’s physiological status influence psychological and behavioural characteristics.
Humanistic psychologists see the development of the self as ongoing throughout life. However, childhood is a particularly important period and a child’s relationship with their parents is important in terms of unconditional positive regard.
The behaviourist approach and SLT do not offer coherent stages of development but instead see the processes that underpin learning as continuous, occurring at any age.

Question 50

Comparison of approaches
Nature v Nurture

Answer 50

Behaviourists characterised babies as ‘blank slates’ at birth and suggest that all behaviour comes about through learning associations, reinforcement contingencies, or in the case of SLT, observation and imitation. In contrast, the biological approach argues from a position that behaviour is the result of a genetic blueprint that we inherit from our parents (genotype), though the way it is expressed is influenced by the environment (phenotype).
Freud thought that much of our behaviour was driven by biological drives and instincts, but he also saw relationships with parents as playing a fundamental role in future development. Similarly, humanistic psychologists regard parents, friends and wider society as having a critical impact on the person’s self-concept. Finally, although cognitive psychologists would recognise that many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate, they are constantly refined through experience.

Question 51

Comparison of approaches
Reductionism

Answer 51

Behaviourism is reductionist in the sense it breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus-response units for ease of testing in the lab. The biological approach is also reductionist in the way that it explains human behaviour and psychological states at the level of genes or neurons. The psychodynamic approach reduces much of our behaviour to the influence of sexual drives and biological instincts, although Freud’s argument that personality is a dynamic interaction between the three parts of the personality is often viewed as a more holistic explanation. The cognitive approach has been accused of machine reductionism by presenting people as information processing systems and ignoring the influence of emotion on behaviour. Like behaviourists, SLT reduce complex learning to a handful of key processes (imitation, modelling, etc.) though they do at least place emphasis on cognitive factors that mediate learning, and how these do interact with external influences.
Finally, humanistic psychology formulates a holistic approach to understanding human behaviour. This involves investigating all aspects of the individual, including the effects of interaction with others and wider society.

Question 52

Comparison of approaches
Determinism

Answer 52

HARD determinism.
The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as environmentally determined by external influences that we are unable to control (eg operant conditioning). The biological approach advocates a form of genetic determinism in its assumption that much of our behaviour is directed by innate influences. Psychic determinism is a key feature of the psychodynamic approach insofar as the unconscious forces that drive our behaviour are the ultimate cause of behaviour, and that these are simply rationalised by our conscious minds.
SOFT determinism
The cognitive approach suggests that we are the ‘choosers’ of our own thoughts and behaviours, yet these choices can only operate within the limits of what we know and have experienced. SLT, like Bandura, put forward the notion of reciprocal determinism - the idea that as well as being influenced by our environment, we also exert some influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform.
Humanistic psychology stands alone in its assertion that human beings have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own development.

Question 53

Comparison of approaches
Explanation and treatment of psychological disorders

Answer 53

The behaviourist model sees abnormality as arising from maladaptive or faulty learning in the sense that inappropriate or destructive patterns of behaviour have been reinforced. Behaviour therapies, such as systematic desensitisation, which aim to condition new, more healthy responses, have been applied successfully to the treatment of phobias.
SLT has had relatively little application to treatment, but the principles of modelling and observational learning have been used to explain how negative behaviours such as aggression may be learned through the influence of dysfunctional role models. Freud saw anxiety disorders as emerging from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and the overuse of defence mechanisms. Psychoanalysis has had some success as a therapy but is not appropriate for everyone because it requires considerable input from the patient in terms of time and the ability to talk about and reflect on emotions. Cognitive therapy is much more effective and applicable, especially when combined with behaviour therapy as CBT. It aims to identify and eradicate faulty thinking which is assumed to be the root cause of maladaptive behaviour.
Humanistic therapy, or counselling, is based on Roger’s philosophy that closing the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self will increase the self-esteem and stimulate personal growth. Many would claim that the biological approach has revolutionised the treatment of mental disorders through the development of drug therapy which regulates chemical imbalances in the brain.

Question 54

Wundt’s data was subjective

Answer 54

One limitation is that other aspects of Wundt’s research would be considered unscientific today. Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. Such data is subjective (influenced by a personal perspective). Also, participants may have hidden some of their thoughts. It is difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’ from such data. And general laws are useful to predict future behaviour, one of the aims of science.
This suggests that some of Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were flawed and would not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry.

Question 55

Psychology as a science is scientific

Answer 55

One strength is that research in modern psychology can claim to be scientific. Psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences - to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour. The learning approaches, cognitive approach and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods, for example, lab studies to investigate theories in a controlled and unbiased way.
This suggests that throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline.

Question 56

Psychology as a science may be subjective

Answer 56

One limitation of psychology is that not all approaches use objective methods. The humanistic approach rejects the scientific approach, preferring to focus on individual experiences and subjective experiences. The psychodynamic approach makes use of the case study method which does not use representative samples. Finally, the subject of study - human beings - are active participants in research, responding for example to demand characteristics.
Therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience may not always be desirable or possible.

Question 57

The behavioural approach is based on well-controlled research (Skinner STRENGTH)

Answer 57

One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is based on well-controlled research. Behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables were removed, allowing cause-and-effect relationships to be established. For instance, Skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animal’s behaviour.
This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.
However, the problem with this is that behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process. By reducing behaviour to such simple components, behaviourists may have ignored an important influence on learning - that of human thought. Other approaches, such as social learning theory and the cognitive approach have drawn attention to the mental processes involved in learning. This suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone and that private mental processes are also essential

Question 58

Real-world application of the behaviourist approach

Answer 58

Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that the principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems. For example, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions, such as prisons and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. For an example of how classical conditioning has been applied to the treatment of phobias.
This increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application.

Question 59

Environmental determinism of the behaviourist approach (WEAKNESS)

Answer 59

One limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. When something happens we may think ‘I made the decision to do that’ but, according to Skinner, our past conditioning history determined the outcome. This ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour (Skinner himself said that free will is an illusion).
This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour (as suggested by the cognitive approach).

Question 60

Social learning theory recognises cognitive factors (STRENGHT)

Answer 60

One strength of the social learning theory approach is that it recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. As Bandura observed,” Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what they do. From observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions, this coded information serves as a guide to action” (Bandura 1977).
This suggests that SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.

Question 61

Social learning theory lacks ecological validity

Answer 61

One limitation of social learning theory is that the evidence on which it is based was gathered through lab studies. Many of Bandura’s ideas were developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in the lab. Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics. It has been suggested, in relation to the Bobo doll research that, because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected.
This suggests that the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

Question 62

Social learning theory has real-world application

Answer 62

Another strength is that SLT principles have been applied to a range of real-world behaviours. Social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles, such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement, can account for how children learn from others around them, including the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender roles.
This increases the value of the approach as it can account for real-world behaviour.

Question 63

The cognitive approach uses scientific methods (STRENGTH)

Answer 63

One strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses objective, scientific methods. Cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and rigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable, objective data. In addition, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis of study.
This means that the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis. However, as cognitive psychology relies on the inference of mental processes, rather than direct observation of behaviour, it can occasionally suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature.

Question 64

Real world application of the cognitive approach

Answer 64

Another strength of the cognitive approach is that it has practical application. The cognitive approach is probably the dominant approach in psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. For example, cognitive psychology has made an important contribution in the field of artificial intelligence (Al) and the development of ‘thinking machines’ (robots). These are exciting advances that may revolutionise how we live in the future. Cognitive principles have also been applied to the treatment of depression and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony.
This supports the value of the cognitive approach.

Question 65

The cognitive approach has machine reductionism
(WEAKNESS)

Answer 65

One limitation of the cognitive approach is that it is based on machine reductionism. There are similarities between the human mind and the Operations of a ‘thinking machine’ such as a computer (inputs and outputs, storage systems, the use of a central processor). However, the computer analogy has been criticised. Such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process information. For instance, research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses
This suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach.

Question 66

Real-world application of the biological approach

Answer 66

One strength of the biological approach is that it has real-world applications. Increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders. For example, the biological approach has promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin at synapses in the brain. Such drugs have been associated with the reduction of depressive symptoms.
This means that people with depression may be better able to manage their condition and live their lives in the community, rather than remain in hospital. However, although antidepressant drugs are successful for many patients, they do not work for everyone.

Question 67

The biological approach has scientific methods

Answer 67

Another strength of the approach is that it uses scientific methods of investigation. In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach makes use of a range of precise and highly objective methods. These include scanning techniques, such as fMRIs and EEGs. With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias.
This means that much of the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data

Question 68

Biological approach is deterministic

Answer 68

One limitation of the biological approach is that it is determinist. The biological approach is determinist in that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control. However, we have already seen that the way in which an individual’s genotype is expressed (phenotype)is heavily influenced by the environment. Not even identical twins who share the same genes look the same and think the same. Also, a purely genetic argument becomes problematic when we consider things such as crime. Could a violent criminal, for instance, really excuse their actions by claiming their behaviour was controlled by a ‘crime gene?
This suggests that the biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment

Question 69

Psychodynamic approach
Real world applicatoin

Answer 69

One strength is that it introduced the idea of psychotherapy as opposed to physical treatments. Freud brought to the world a new form of therapy, psychoanalysis. This was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically. This new therapy employed a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious, such as dream analysis. Psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions to their conscious minds so they can be dealt with. Psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern-day ‘talking therapies’ such as counselling, that have since been established. This shows the value of the psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to treatment.

Question 70

Psychodynamic approach
Explanatory power

Answer 70

A strength of Freud’s theory is its ability to explain human behaviour. Freud’s work has been a huge influence on psychology and contemporary thought. Alongside behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach remained a key force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century and has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, the origins of psychological disorders, moral development and gender identity. The approach is also significant in drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood, such as our relationship with our parents, and our later development. This suggests that overall, the psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact on psychology.

Question 71

The psychodynamic approach
Untestable concepts

Answer 71

One limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that much of it is untestable. Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach doesn’t meet the scientific criterion of falsification. It is not open to empirical testing (or being disproved). Many of Freud’s concepts (such as the id and Oedipus complex) are said to occur at an unconscious level, making them difficult to test. His ideas were also based on the subjective study of single individuals, such as little Hans, making them difficult to make universal claims about human behaviours. This suggests that Freud’s theory was pseudoscientific (not a real science) rather than established fact.

Question 72

Humanistic psychology
Non reductionist

Answer 72

One strength of the humanistic approach is that it rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components. Behaviourists explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus-response connections. Supporters of the cognitive approach see human beings as little more than information-processing machines. Freud described the whole of personality as a conflict between three components. In contrast, humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-world context. HOWEVER, reductionist approaches may be more scientific as the ideal of science is the experiment and experiments reduce behaviour down to independent and dependent variables.

Question 73

Humanistic psychology
Positive approach

Answer 73

Another strength of the humanistic approach is that it is optimistic, Humanistic psychologists have been praised for bringing the person back into psychology and promoting a positive image of the human condition. Freud saw human beings as prisoners of their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’. In contrast, humanistic psychologists see all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives. This suggests that humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative to other approaches.

Question 74

Humanistic psychology
Culture bias

Answer 74

One limitation of the approach is that it may be culturally biased. Many of the ideas that are cebtral to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, would be much more readily associated with countries that have more individualistic tendencies (eg USA). Countries collectivist tendencies emphasise more the needs of the group and interdependence. IN such countries, the ideals of humanistic psychology may not be as important as in others (eg self-actualisation). Therefore, it is possible that this approach does not apply universally and is a product of the cultural context in which it was developed.