Research Methods

Question 1

state types of data

Answer 1

sociologists use a wide variety of different research methods and sources to obtain data about society. They can be classified into:

(a) Primary and Secondary data sources

(b) Quantitative and Qualitative data

Question 2

Explain primary data

Answer 2

Primary data refers to information which was not present before the research began. It is produced by the researcher first-hand during the actual study from questionnaires, interviews, observations etc (using primary research methods)

Question 3

state one advantage and disadvantage of primary data

Answer 3

• an advantage of using primary data is that sociologists will be able to gather precisely information they need to test hypotheses.

However, one disadvantage would be that primary data can be both time consuming and expensive

Question 4

Explain Secondary data

Answer 4

Secondary data refers to data which already exists. It includes data from historical records, official statistics, government reports, newspapers, diaries, autobiographies. novels etc

Question 5

state one advantage and disadvantage of secondary data

Answer 5

one advantage of using secondary data and sources would be that it is a quick and cheap way of doing research

However, one disadvantage would be that it may have been produced for different reasons

Question 6

explain Quantitative data

Answer 6

Quantitative data refers to information in a numerical form which can be subject to statistical analysis. For example:

• official statistics on how many girls passed five or more GCSEs;
• league table showing a school’s achievement data;
• the proportion of young people from middle class backgrounds who go to university

Question 7

what is a great strength of quantitative data

Answer 7

Quantitative data is particularly useful for measuring (quantifying) the strength of relationships between different factors/variables. It can be shown as statistics and displayed in pictorial form such as graphs and pie-charts etc

Question 8

explain qualitative data

Answer 8

Qualitative data refers to all types of data that are not numerical including for example:

• descriptive data from observations from classrooms looking at teacher and pupil interaction;
• quotes from interviews on how black pupils feel they have been labelled;
• written sources on LEA policy;
• a newspaper article assessing the current state of education
• pictures and photographs contrasting grammar school to secondary modern pupils etc

Question 9

explain a strength of qualitative data

Answer 9

Qualitative data can often provide a richer and more in-depth picture of social life than the statistics provided by quantitative data. It gives you a ‘feel’ for what something is like

Question 10

what does sociologists usually want their data to be?

Answer 10

validity and reliability

Question 11

explain validity

Answer 11

validity refers to data is valid if it presents a true. genuine and accurate picture, description or measurement which enables the researcher to get close to the truth. For example, if a sociologist captured in their research how it felt to be labelled negatively by a teacher

Question 12

explain reliability

Answer 12

reliability refer data is reliable when different researchers using the same methods obtain the same results - it is replicated (a replica). For example, if a number of researchers observed the same set in a school and produced the same description of the pupils behaviour, their results would be seen as being reliable.

Question 13

explain the difference between validity and reliability in relation to data

Answer 13

The main difference between validity and reliability is that some data may be reliable but not valid. For example, the position of schools in the league table may be based on reliable achievement data, but it may not represent a valid picture of the school, its standard of teaching etc.

Question 14

State practical issues

Answer 14

• time and money
• funding body
• personal skills and social status
• research opportunity

Question 15

explain the practical issues of time and money

Answer 15

time and money refers to a different methods require different amounts of time and money and this may influence a sociologists choice:

• For example, large scale surveys may employ dozens of interviewers and data-inputting staff and cost a great deal of money. By contrast, a small scale project involving a lone researcher using participant observation may be cheaper to carry out, but it can take several years.

The researcher’s access to resources can be a major factor in determining what methods researchers employ, as a well-known professor would have access to more resources compared to a young student

Question 16

explain the practical issue of funding body

Answer 16

Funding body/bodies refer to whoever is funding the research may be in a position to dictate how they want to research to be conducted, what form the results should be in and the duration of the research:

• research institutes businesses and other organisations that provide the funding for research may require the results to be in a particular position

For example, a government department funding reaching educational research may give targets for pass rates and so require qualitative data to see whether these targets are being achieved. This means the sociologist will have to use a method capable of producing such data e.g. questionnaires or structured interviews

Question 17

explain the practical issue of personal skills and social status

Answer 17

personal skills and social status refers to the sociologist’s own personality and character, as well as their own status may impact on their ability to use different methods .

• For example, participants observation usually requires the ability to mix easily with others, as well as good powers of observation and recall while depth interviews call for an ability to establish a rapport (relationship of empathy and trust) with the interviewee. Not all, sociologists have these qualities and so some may have difficulty using these methods

Question 18

explain the practical issue of research opportunity

Answer 18

research opportunity refer to when an research opportunity turns up unexpectedly whereas in others it is planned well in advance, this will impact on the suitability of certain methods

This means that may not be possible to use structured methods such as questionnaires which take longer to prepare. For example, a Glasgow gang leader offered the sociologist James Patrick (1973), the chance ‘out of the blue’ to spend time with his gang with little time to prepare, Patrick had no option but to use participation observation . In other circumstances, researchers are usually able to set up the research opportunity carefully beforehand and select their method

Question 19

define what is meant by rapport

Answer 19

Rapport refers to the ease of a relationship between people and, in the case of sociological research, between a researcher and their subjects. This can be important when it comes to getting people to open up and have the confidence to speak at length or engage in research at all. It is of particular importance with interviews, where sociologists who have the skills to build a good rapport with their interviewees are likely to get richer, more detailed data than those who are unable to break down the formal barriers of an interview situation.

Question 20

state the various ethical issues

Answer 20

• informed consent
• confidentiality and privacy
• protection
• vulnerable groups

Question 21

explain the ethical issue of informed consent

Answer 21

Informed consent: research participants should be given the opportunity to agree or refuse to participate in research. The decision should be ‘informed’ so some information of the study should be offered so that they can make a fully informed decision and should not be deceived.

Question 22

explain the ethical issue of confidentiality and privacy

Answer 22

Confidentiality and privacy: researchers should respect the privacy of the participants and the identity and personal information of the participants should be kept confidential.

Question 23

explain the ethical issue of protection

Answer 23

Protection: researchers need to be aware of the possible effects of their work on those they study and where possible should try to anticipate and prevent any harmful consequences.

Question 24

explain the ethical issue of vulnerable issue

Answer 24

Vulnerable groups: special care should be taken where research participants are particularly vulnerable because of their age, physical or mental health etc.

Question 25

what do theoretical issues mean

Answer 25

Theoretical issues refer to the two contrasting research traditions/approaches within sociology. These approaches are often referred to as positivism and interpretivism. These are based on a very different view and perspective of how society works, what drives our behaviour and how research should be conducted. The theoretical approach or perspective adopted by the sociologist has a significant impact on the type of research and research methods/sociologists prefer to use.

• POSITIVISTS
• INTERPRETIVISTS

Question 26

Explain the theoretical issue of positivism / positivists

Answer 26

Positivists:

• see sociology as a science
• take a ‘top down approach’
  to society
• seek to measure the impact of society on behaviour
• seek to discover patterns of behaviour
• value detached objective data - facts + info
• adopt a macro level of analysis - large scale study - structures + systems of society
• adopt a macro level of analysis
• prefer quantitative research methods and data

Question 27

Explain the theoretical issue of interpretivism / interpretivists

Answer 27

Interpretivists:

• reject the view that sociology is a science
• take a bottom-up approach (interactionists)
• seek to understand social actors meanings
• seek to interpret and understand behaviour
• recognise the value of subjective and in depth data (opinion/beliefs)
• adopt a micro level of analysis - small scale study - people/interviews
• prefer qualitative research methods and data

Question 28

state a case that can be used for ethical issues in research

Answer 28

Loud Humphreys (1970) research into ‘the tearoom trade’

Question 29

Explain Laud Humphreys (1970) research

Answer 29

Laud Humphreys research ‘the tearoom trade’ -

In the research, Humphrey observed gay sexual encounters in public toilets. He wished (a) to explain how such encounters and the social structure they required, worked; and (b) to investigate the rules and meanings attached to the encounters by the participants.

Humphrey did this research by being engaged in covert participant observation and follow up interviews.
Humphreys became part of the scene in Chicago by visiting gay bars and became an accepted part of the scene. For his CPO research, he adopted the role of ‘watch-queen’ – meaning a lookout, but also someone who got satisfaction from watching others engage in sex. Publication of his study attracted controversy. He noted 134 car number plates of cars regularly parked near the public toilets, and using contacts with the police forces, obtained the addresses of the owners. Having changed his appearance, he called on 100 people in the guise of a health survey to conduct further research a year later

Question 30

What were the reactions to Humphreys research?

Answer 30

May (1993) recounts the details of the response to this research:

The reactions to the publication of his study were variable. As Humphreys notes in his postscript to the book: ‘several have suggested to me that I should have avoided this research subject altogether’. He was accused of deceit, the invasion of privacy and increasing the likelihood of the sample’s detection by the police. One account suggested that some faculty members at Washington University were so outraged ‘that they demanded (unsuccessfully) that Humphreys doctoral degree be revoked’.

On the other hand: ‘The research was applauded by members of the gay community and some social scientists for shedding light on a little-known segment of our society, and for dispelling stereotypes and myths’. In this sense, the means justified the end. He brought into the public domain an understanding of an issue which American society had done much to repress. To his critics however, the means can never justify the ends and research involving deception and manipulation undermines trust.

Question 31

Why was Humphrey’s work criticised?

Answer 31

The reactions to the publication of his study were variable. As Humphreys notes in his postscript to the book: ‘several have suggested to me that I should have avoided this research subject altogether’. He was accused of deceit, the invasion of privacy and increasing the likelihood of the sample’s detection by the police. One account suggested that some faculty members at Washington University were so outraged ‘that they demanded (unsuccessfully) that Humphreys doctoral degree be revoked’.

Question 32

Why was Humphrey’s work celebrated by some?

Answer 32

On the other hand: ‘The research was applauded by members of the gay community and some social scientists for shedding light on a little-known segment of our society, and for dispelling stereotypes and myths’. In this sense, the means justified the end. He brought into the public domain an understanding of an issue which American society had done much to repress. To his critics however, the means can never justify the ends and research involving deception and manipulation undermines trust.

Question 33

State the topics involved in research design e.g. designing and conducting much research

Answer 33

1 - choosing a topic

2 - formulating an aim or hypothesis

3 - operationalising concepts

4 - the pilot study

5 - Sampling

6 - Sampling techniques

Question 34

Explain the stage of choosing a topic in relation to research design

Answer 34

CHOOSING A TOPIC:

Sociologists need to decide what topic they wish to study. This will be guided by funding bodies, location, societal values, topics of contemporary significance e.g. Brexit, covid-19 (any topics that are current issues), personal interests, sociologists perspective e.g. feminists will focus their topics on gender inequality or domestic violence etc.

Question 35

Explain the stage of formulating an aim or hypothesis

Answer 35

FORMULATING AN AIM OR HYPOTHESIS:

Most research either has a general aim or specific hypothesis to test. An aim identifies what the sociologist intends to study and hopes to achieve by conducting the research e.g. the research reasons for educational underachievement. Much research is designed to test a specific hypothesis:

Hypothesis is a predictive statement, prediction, explanation, theory that can be challenged to be either true or false. e.g. material deprivation leads to educational underachievement.

Question 36

what is advantage of formulating an aim or hypothesis?

Answer 36

The advantage of hypothesis is that it gives direction to research and focus to the questions to be asked. Creating a hypothesis requires the sociologist to think up a possible explanation and often they do this by drawing on previous research that has been conducted on the topic, but it could come from anywhere. If the evidence gathered shows that the hypothesis is false, then it must be discarded and attention could be directed to new directions for research.

Question 37

Explain the stage of operationalising concepts

Answer 37

OPERATIONALISING CONCEPTS:

operationalising concepts refers to sociologists testing their hypothesis ‘material deprivation leads to educational underachievement’. (material deprivation being the independent variable e.g. the cause which can lead to a consequence whereas educational underachievement is the dependent variable e.g. the effect which must be clarified and defined).

Abstract ideas included within the hypothesis must be defined and clarified in order to ensure that they can be measured (operationalised) - measurement of underachievement and material deprivation to define and clarify/clear.

Once the sociologist has a working or ‘operational’ definition of the concept, they can then write questions that measure it. Therefore, before research starts, sociological ideas must be defined in a way that can be measured

Question 38

Explain the stage of the pilot study

Answer 38

THE PILOT STUDY:

Once a hypothesis has been designed and key concepts operationalised, the next stage is to produce a pilot study.

A pilot study is a draft/smaller scale, preliminary trial study designed to test the research design e.g. the questions and problems with research.

After carrying out the pilot study, it should be possible to finalise

Question 39

Explain stage of the sampling

Answer 39

SAMPLING:

Once a sociologist has decided on the topic of their research, they need to decide who should be included in their research - their target/research population:

The target/research population refers to the people, a social group or the community who are relevant to the research/study and the group that will be targeted in the study.

For practical reasons, sociological research cannot involve the entire relevant population, therefore sociologists choose a sample:
A smaller sub-group drawn from the larger research group, target population

Each individual member of the sample is a sampling unit. Sociologists often aim to produce generalisations that apply to all cases of the topic and people they are researching, not just those in those involved in the study. The basic purpose of sampling is to ensure that those people selected for the sample are representative of the larger target/research population. If the sample is representative, generalisations can be made to cover the entire target/research population:

sociologists who engage in a macro level analysis, want to generalise the findings of their research to the entire target/research population/ they can only do this if their sample is typical / a cross - section of the population they are studying.

In some cases, a sociologist may be able to select their sample from a sampling frame:

A database/list of all members of the research / target population e.g the school

Question 40

Explain what is a representative sample

Answer 40

Representative sampling:
Sociologists employ various sampling techniques to gain a representative sample of the research population:

• Random sampling
• Quasi-random/systematic sampling
• stratified random sampling
• quota sampling

Question 41

define random sampling

Answer 41

Random sampling refers to where a sample is selected purely by chance and everyone has an equal chance of being selected, e.g. names may be drawn out of a hat..
A large enough random sample should reflect the characteristics (e.g. gender, ethnicity, class etc.) of the whole research population. However, not all random samples are large enough to ensure representativeness.

Question 42

define quasi-random/systematic sampling

Answer 42

Quasi-random/systematic sampling is where every nth person in the sampling frame is selected.

Question 43

define stratified random sampling

Answer 43

stratified random sampling is where the researcher first breaks down (stratifies) the population in the sampling frame by age, gender, ethnicity etc. The sample is then created in the same proportions, e.g. if 20% of the population are U18, 20% of the sample would be U18

Question 44

define quota sampling

Answer 44

Quota sampling is where the population is stratified as above, and then each is given a quota of say, 20 females and 20 males, which they have to fill with respondents who fit these characteristics. The interviewer keeps at this task until their quota is filled.

Question 45

explain non-representative sampling

Answer 45

For theoretical and practical reasons, not all studies use representative sampling techniques: Even where it is possible to create a representative sample, some sociologists may choose not to do so, because of their theoretical/methodological perspective. Interpretivists engage in a micro level of analysis as they are more concerned with gaining a valid understanding of behaviour than to discover general laws of behaviour. Therefore, they often use non-representative samples.

non-representative samples include snowball sampling and opportunity sampling

Question 46

in relation to non-representative samples, state several practical reasons why it may not be possible to create a representative sample

Answer 46

There are several practical reasons why it may not be possible to create a representative sample:

(a) The social characteristics of the research population may not be known and therefore it would be impossible to create a sample that was an exact cross-section of it;

(b) It may be impossible to find or create a sampling frame for that particular research population;

(c) Potential respondents may refuse to participate. Where it is not possible to obtain a representative sample, sociologists sometimes use snowball or opportunity samples:

Question 47

explain snowball sampling

Answer 47

Snowball sampling involves collecting a sample by contacting a key number of individuals who are asked to suggest others who would participate in the research, thus adding to the sample ‘snowball’ fashion. Although not representative, it is a useful way to contact a sample of people who may otherwise be difficult to find.

Question 48

explain opportunity sampling

Answer 48

Opportunity sampling involves choosing from those individuals who are easiest to access or a captive audience. However, the sample is unlikely to be representative.

Question 49

Explain lab experiments

Answer 49

The logic of the experimental method is that the scientist manipulates (alters) the variables in which they are interested, in order to discover what effect they have. By following this method, the scientist can establish a cause-and-effect relationship. In turn, this will allow them to predict accurately what will happen in the future under specified conditions.

One way to investigate this would be to take a set of identical plants and randomly divide them into two groups: an experimental and a control group. With the experimental group: the quantity of nutrients could be varied, carefully measuring and recording any changes in the plants’ size. With the control group, the quantity of nutrients would be constant. On comparing the results, if the experimental group plants have grown more rapidly than the plants in the control group after receiving extra nutrients, then a cause-and-effect relationship has been discovered: nutrients cause growth. In scientific terms, the nutrient is the independent variable (the causal factor) and the resulting growth is the effect or dependent variable (since it depends on the first variable, nutrition).

Once a lab experiment has been conducted other researchers can replicate it following exactly the same steps, therefore this method is considered to be completely reliable, producing the same results each time. Also, because it is a very detached method, the researcher merely manipulates the variables and records the results. The scientist’s personal feelings and opinions have no effect on the conduct of the outcome of the experiment. Positivists, who see sociology as a science, like this method as they seen it as being an objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology.

Question 50

state several practical reasons why lab experiments are rarely used by sociologists

Answer 50

There are several practical reasons why such experiments are rarely used in sociology, even by positivists. Society is very complex, and it would be impossible to identify, let alone control all the variables that might impact on behaviour.

• Furthermore, their small-scale nature also reduces their representativeness as they can only ever be based on very small samples.
• Theoretically, many sociologists have serious doubts about using experiments in human social research as they see them as artificial environments producing artificial results.
• A laboratory is not a normal or natural environment and therefore it is unlikely that behaviour in these conditions is true to life and valid.
• Furthermore, if people know they are being studied, this knowledge is likely to impact on their behaviour by changing it. This is known as the Hawthorn Effect.

Question 51

state advantages of using lab experiments

Answer 51

• good reliability because it is easy to replicate the exact same conditions
• high level of detachment between the researcher and the respondent so scientists personal feelings and opinions have no effect in the conduct of the experiment (objective research based on facts)
• positivists preferred method is lab experiments as it allows scientific research to be quantified. Positivists see lab experiments as an objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology.
• the controlled conditions of laboratory experiments allow researchers to isolate variables ; you can precisely measure the exact effect of one thing on another.
• easy to attract funding because of the prestige of science
• ethical - most laboratory experiments seek to gain informed consent
• allows to establish a cause and effect relationship between variables.

Question 52

state disadvantages of using lab experiments

Answer 52

• society is very complex so lab experiments are rarely used as it is impossible to identify, let alone control all the variable.
• small scale nature reduces their representativeness as they can only be based on very small samples
• low ecological validity
• superficial / simplistic way of measuring behaviour
• Hawthorne effect - further reduces validity as people may act differently if they know they are being studied impacting their behaviour
• they are reductionist - humans have behaviour cannot be explained through a simple cause and effect relationship as humans are not puppets
• ethical - deception and lack of informed consent - necessary in lab experiments to decisive subjects to the true nature of the experiment so they do not act differently linking to the Hawthorne effect
• causes demand characteristics as people change their behaviour to be presented in an experiment

Question 53

explain field experiments

Answer 53

Field experiments take place in the subject’s natural surroundings, such as a school, rather than an artificial environment to make the research more valid and realistic. Additionally, to avoid the Hawthorne Effect those involved are generally not aware that they are taking part in an experiment. As a result, many critics argue that they are unethical. Furthermore, because they are more realistic, there is less scope for control over the variables that might be operating.

Question 54

explain the comparative method

Answer 54

The comparative method is carried out only in the mind of the sociologist. It is a ‘thought experiment’ and does not involve the researcher actually experimenting on real people at all. However, like the lab and field experiment, it too is designed to discover cause-and-effect relationships. It works as follows: (a) Identify two groups of people that are alike in all major respects except for one variable we are interested in. (b) Then compare the two groups to see if this one difference between them has any effect. Therefore, this method is ethical, it avoids artificiality and can be used to study past events. However, it gives the researcher even less control over variables than do field experiments, so we can be even less certain whether this method has really discovered the cause of something.

Question 55

why is important to have a control group in an experiment?

Answer 55

It is important to have a control group in an experiment because it is easier to measure the extent of the impact of the independent variable. (easier to make comparisons between groups)

Question 56

provide two reasons why lab experiments may produce reliable data

Answer 56

• lab experiments are reliable because it is easy to replicates the same conditions and results each time
• lab experiments are reliable as there is a high level of detachment between researcher and respondent which means scientists personal feelings and opinions have no effect on the conduct of the outcome of the experiment

Question 57

why is it necessary to deceive the subjects of an experiment ?

Answer 57

To avoid the Hawthorne effect, it is necessary to deceive subjects who are not aware of the true nature of the experiment so they do not act differently and ensure subjects are acting realistically.

• to enhance the validity of the experiment and reduce the Hawthorne effect

Question 58

state two criticisms of field experiments

Answer 58

• unethical with issues of deception and lack of informed consent research subjects not informed that an experiment is taking place in order for them to act naturally leading to issues of deception and lack of consent
• theoretical - not possible to control variables as closely with becomes, it becomes harder to identify where the causes identified are the correct ones as they are not taking place in the lab

Question 59

identify one advantage and disadvantage of the comparative method

Answer 59

advantage - avoids artificiality as it can be used to study past events and it poses no ethical problems such as harming subjects

disadvantage - gives research less control over variables than in field experiments, making it less certain whether the experiment discovered the cause of something

Question 60

state concerns about using lab experiments to conduct research within the field of education in relation to methods in context

Answer 60

• Ethical concerns: They play a limited role in educational research due to the ethical concerns raised with working with young pupils. Most do not involve real pupils so have fewer ethical implications. Neither of used real pupils, so no child suffered any negative effects.
• Narrow focus: They usually only examine one specific aspect of behaviour, such as teacher expectations. This can be useful as it allows the researcher to isolate and examine the variable more thoroughly, but it often results in too narrow a focus.
• Practical problems: There are problems in conducting experiments on issues such as teachers’ expectations. In practice it is impossible to identify, let alone control all the variables that might exert an influence on teachers’ expectations. Some educational issues could not be studied in small scale lab settings.
• Artificiality: Their artificiality means that they tell us little about the real world.

Question 61

explain what is questionnaires

Answer 61

Questionnaires refer to a list of pre-determined questions. They can be administered by hand, past or online. Each type carriers its own advantages and disadvantages. Two types of questions can be asked: closed questions have a pre-determined range of response options fixed by the researcher, the respondent selects from alternative options, a box to tick or a preference to circle. Open questions ask the respondent to answer in their own words without any predetermined options, space is left to allow freedom and detail. Although open questions allow qualitative data to be gained, questionnaires are the main method used for macro level of analysis and for generating qualitative data as they allow classification and measurement,

Question 62

explain closed questions

Answer 62

closed questions have a pre-determined range of response options fixed by the researcher, the respondent selects from alternative options, a box to tick or a preference to circle.

Question 63

explain open questions

Answer 63

Open questions ask the respondent to answer in their own words without any predetermined options, space is left to allow freedom and detail. Although open questions allow qualitative data to be gained, questionnaires are the main method used for macro level of analysis and for generating qualitative data as they allow classification and measurement,

Question 64

state advantages about practical questionnaires

Answer 64

ADVANTAGES:

• practical advantages: questionnaires are quick and cheap means of gathering large amount of data from a large sample, geographically dispersed - particularly if conducted online or by post. Dewson(2001) posted nearly 4,000 questionnaires to students at 14 HE institutions researching the factors which influence the decisions of WC students to go to university,
• respondents complete and return the questionnaires themselves, therefore there is no need to recruit and train interviewers or observers to collect the data.
• the data is easy to quantify, particularly where pre-coded, closed questions are used and can be processed quickly by computer to identify relationship between variables

Question 65

state other advantages about questionnaires

Answer 65

reliability :
- questionnaires are a standardised and fixed yardstick that can be used by any researcher, all respondents are asked exactly the same questions, in the same order, with the same options for answers. Therefore, the research can be easily is repeated.

• differences in answers can be assumed to be a reflection of real differences between respondents and not simply the result of different questions or how they have been asked. With postal and online questionnaires, unlike interviews, there is no research present, to influence the respondents answers.
• one researchers study can be easily repeated and checked and comparisons can be made

Hypothesis testing:
- They are particularly useful for testing hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. They are attractive to positivists, because they enable possible causes to be identified as they take a scientific approach, seeking it discover laws of cause and effect

Detachment and objectivity:
- Positivists also favour questionnaires as they are a detached and a objective method, where the sociologist’s personal involvement with their respondents is kept to a minimum - this is particularly the case with online and postal questionnaires. Therefore, they see them s a good way of maintaining detachment and objectivity.

Representativeness:
- The results of questionnaires stand a better chance of being truly representative as they collect information from a large sample of people. Furthermore, researchers who use questionnaires are more likely to try to obtain a representative sample, allowing the findings to be generalised to the wider target population,

Ethical issues:
- Although questionnaires may ask intrusive and personal questions, respondents are under no obligation to answer and their anonymity is guaranteed, therefore, they pose fewer ethical issues than most other methods.

Question 66

State practical disadvantages of questionnaires

Answer 66

Practical disadvantages/problems:
- the data from questionnaires tends to be limited and superficial. This is because they tend to be brief to ensure that respondents complete and return them. This limits the amount of information that can be gathered.

• Also, it may sometimes be necessary to offer incentives to persuade respondents to participate.
• with postal and online questionnaires, the research cannot guarantee that the potential respondent actually received the questionnaire or whether a returned questionnaire was actually completed by the person it was addressed to.

Question 67

state disadvantages of questionnaires

Answer 67

Low response rate:
- low response rates, particularly from postal and online questionnaires can be a huge problem. 100,000 questionnaires were sent out to the US for a study on ‘love, passion and emotional violence’ by Shere Hite (1991), however only 4.5% were returned.

• Those who do return their questionnaires may be different from those who do not. If the respondents are different from the non-respondents then the results will be distorted and unrepresentative, from which no valid generalisations can be made.
• A higher response rate can be obtained if follow up questionnaires are sent, or they are collected by hand. However, this adds to the cost and time.

Inflexibility:
- They are inflexible as new areas of interest that come up in the research cannot be explored. This can be contrasted to unstructured interviews, where the research can ask new questions if they seem relevant.

Snapshot picture:
- They provide a picture of social reality at only one point in time; the moment when questions are completed. Therefore, they do not provide a fully valid picture because they do not capture the way people’s attitudes and behaviour changes. This snapshot contrasts with the moving picture of social life that can be gained from participant observation.

Detachment:
- Interpretivists argue that data from questionnaires lacks validity and does not give a true picture of what has been studied as they do not allow the sociologist to get close to the subjects that they study and share meanings. They believe that research should enable the sociologist to put themselves in the subject’s place and see the world through their eyes. Questionnaires are the more detached of all methods and therefore prevent this - postal and online questionnaires involve no direct contact between the research and the researched.

• This means that there is no way to clarify that the questions mean or to deal with misunderstandings and misinterpretations

Lying, forgetting and ‘right answerism’:
- All methods that gather data by asking questions depend on the respondents willingness and ability to provide full and accurate answers. Problem of validity are created when respondents give limited answers. Respondents may be dishonest, forget, now know, not understand or try to please or second-guess the research. Some may give ‘respectable’ answers they feel they ought to give rather than tell the truth. In contrast, observational methods allow the sociologist to see for him/herself what the subjects actually do, rather than what they say they do.

Imposing the researcher’s meanings:
- Interpretivists argue that questionnaires are likely to impose the researcher’s own meanings than reveal those of the respondent; by choosing which questions to ask, how to ask them, predetermined options for answering, they have decided what is important.
- If open questions are asked, similar but non-identical answers may get lumped together in the same category for analysis, thus distorting the respondents meanings and undermining the validity of the data.

Question 68

state advantages for using closed-ended questions?

Answer 68

• quick and easy to complete - easier to compare
• enhances generalisation of results and few sets of questions to complete
• data is quantitative which means it is easy to analyse and compute
• allow comparisons to be made with other sets of data

Question 69

Explain interviews

Answer 69

Interviews represent something of a compromise between the more structured research methods such as questionnaires and the very unstructured in-depth methods such as participant observation. Interviews can be adapted to meet the theoretical and practical preferences of different sociologists and because of this, they are a very popular research tool. Although, sociologists use different types of interviews in their research, from completely structured to unstructured - the difference between them lying in how free the interviewer is to vary the questions and the way they are all based on a social interaction between the interview and interviewee

Question 70

define interviews

Answer 70

An interview is a researcher directly asking a series of questions to one or more interviewees. They can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured and can be conducted in groups or with individuals.

Question 71

state the types of interviews

Answer 71

• structured or formal interviews
• unstructured or informal interviews
• semi-structured interviews
• group interviews

Question 72

define structured or formal interviews

Answer 72

Structured or formal interviews are essentially a verbal questionnaire. The interviewer is given strict standardised instructions on how to ask questions in precisely in the same way, word for word, in the same order, tone of voice etc for each participant (positivists prefer this method)

Question 73

define unstructured or informal interviews

Answer 73

Unstructured or informal interviews (sometimes called discovery interviews) are like a guided conservation where the interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions, their wording, order etc from one interview to the next - pursuing whatever line of questioning seems appropriate and relevant, asking follow-up questions to probe in greater depth. Also, new questions can be generated from answers of the respondents - similar to a conversation.

(interpretivists prefer this method)

Question 74

define semi-structured interviews

Answer 74

Semi-structured interviews refer to an interview that has the same set of questions in common but the interview can probe for more detailed information. For example, Circourel and Kitsuse (1963) always followed up their questions with ‘How do you mean?’ as a way of gaining more information and in-depth answers.

(Interpretivists prefer this method)

Question 75

define group interviews

Answer 75

group interviews refer to when up to 12-15 people are interviewed together. Willis (1977) used these as part of his research into anti-school subcultures. Focus groups are a form of group interviews in which the researcher asks a group to discuss certain topics and record their views.

Question 76

explain practical issues in relation to structured interviews

Answer 76

Structured Interviews (SIs) are liked questionnaires but the predetermined (usually closed) questions are read out and filled in by the researcher.

Practical Issues:
- Training interviewers is straightforward, however it is more costly than using questionnaires.

• Surveys using Sis can cover a large sample (but not as great as postal or emailed questionnaires.
• Results are easily quantified as questions are usually closed and pre-coded. Therefore, they are suitable for hypothesis testing.

Question 77

explain response rates in relation to structured interviews

Answer 77

Response rate:
- SIs usually have a high response rate as people often find it difficult to turn down a face-to-face request. This increases the chances of gaining a representative sample and therefore provides a basis for making generalisations.

• However, those who participate may be untypical. This would produce unrepresentative data and undermine the validity of any generalisations made.

Question 78

explain reliability in relation to structured interviews

Answer 78

Reliability:

• SIs are viewed as reliable because they are standardised and control and can therefore be repeated. Another researcher following the same interview procedure should get the same results.
• Answers can easily be compared and similarities and differences identified.

Question 79

explain validity in relation to structured interviews

Answer 79

Validity:
- Critics of SIs argue that like questionnaires, the closed questions reduce the validity of the responses as the freedom of interviewees is restricted. They may not be provided with a relevant pre-coded answer and there is little scope to clarify misunderstandings.

• Because an interview is a social interaction, there is always a risk that the researcher will impact on the answers.

Question 80

explain inflexibility in relation to structured interviews

Answer 80

Inflexibility:

• Like questionnaires, they suffer from the inflexibility of having standardised questions and predetermined responses (and as above, this impacts on the validity of the findings).

Question 81

explain feminist criticisms in relation to structured interviews

Answer 81

Feminist criticisms:

• In SIs, the researcher is dominant and in control of the interview. Feminists argue that this mirrors women’s subordination in wider society, particularly if female interviewee feels intimidated by the research experience.
• Feminists (and interpretivists) favour unstructured interviews which enable the researcher to build a more equal and collaborative relationship based on trust, empathy and support.

Question 82

state advantages to unstructured interviews

Answer 82

Unstructured interviews (UIs) do not follow a standardised format and therefore the researcher has freedom to vary the interview.

ADVANTAGES:

Rapport and sensitivity:
- The informality of UIs allows the researcher to develop a rapport (where a conversation reflects a relationship of trust and understanding) with the interviewee. This will put the interviewee at ease and encourage them to open up
.
- They are useful when studying sensitive issues. Dobash and Dobash used them to study domestic violence. The empathy and encouragement of the researcher will help the interviewee to feel comfortable discussing difficult issues.

The interviewee’s view:
- Unlike SIs, they provide great freedom and scope for the interviewee to speak about things they think are important and relevant to the research in their own terms. As a result, they are more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data.

• The researcher’s probing can help formulate and develop interviewees’ thoughts more clearly.

Checking understanding:
- The interviewer and interviewee can check each other’s meanings and follow up questions can clarify any misunderstandings.

Flexibility:
- The researcher can formulate new ideas, themes, questions and hypotheses and put them to the test as they arise during the course of the interview.

Exploring unfamiliar topics:
- Because questions are open-ended and exploratory as in an ordinary conversation, researchers can start the interview with relatively little subject knowledge on the issue being researched.

• Some sociologists use UIs as a starting point to develop their initial ideas about a topic before going on to use more structured methods of investigation.

Question 83

state disadvantages to unstructured interviews

Answer 83

DISADVANTAGES:

Practical problems:
- As UIs are in-depth explorations, they take a long time to conduct and this limits the number that can be carried out. This means the researcher will have a relatively small sample compared with the large numbers that can be researched using SIs and questionnaires.

• Training needs to be more thorough for a researcher to recognise a sociologically valid point and probe it further, than for someone conducting SIs. This adds to the cost of UIs.
• Interviewers need good interpersonal skills so they can establish the necessary rapport central to gaining full and honest responses.

Representativeness:
- Samples will rarely be representative due to the smaller number of UIs that can be conducted. Therefore, it is difficult to make generalisations.

Reliability:
- UIs are not reliable as they are not standardised as each interview is unique. Therefore it is impossible for another researcher to replicate the interviews and check findings.

Quantification:
- Because questions are open, they cannot be quantified. This means they are not useful for establishing cause and effect relationships and hypothesis testing that positivists prefer.

Validity:
- UIs are generally seen as producing valid data. However, critics argue that because they are interactive, this colours and distorts the information obtained.

Question 84

explain interviews as a social interaction

Answer 84

All interviews involve social interaction. The danger here, is that the interviewee may be responding not to the questions asked, but to the social situation in which they are asked. Social interaction can threaten the validity of interviews in several ways:

Interviewer bias:
- Interviewers may consciously or unconsciously influence the answer by their facial expression, body language or tone of voice or asking leading questions.

• A source of interviewer bias is where the interviewer identifies too closely with the interviewees. Oakley (1982) admitted that as a mother herself, she found it difficult to remain detached and neutral when she was interviewing other women about maternity and childbirth.

Artificiality:
- Even the most relaxed or UIs is still an interview and not quite a normal conversation; under these artificial conditions, it is sometimes doubtful whether truthful answers can be gained. Follow up interviews help to check and improved the validity of the answers gained.

Status and power inequalities:
- Inequalities between the interviewer and interviewee may impact on the interviewee’s honesty or willingness to answer. In general, the bigger the status difference, the less valid the data, e.g. Rich (1968) found that when adults interview children, the child’s need to please the interviewer will affect their answers.

• Social class, age, gender and ethnic differences can shape and impact on interviews. Wherever possible researchers will try to ensure that the interviewers and interviewees are as closely matched in terms of social status.

Cultural differences:
- Cultural differences may lead to misunderstandings as a result of different meanings being attached to words etc. Therefore, wherever possible researchers will try to ensure that the interviewers and interviewees are culturally matched.

Social desirability effect:
- In social interaction, people often seek approval. This may be relevant in interviews as interviewees may provide answers to present themselves in a positive light. They may not want to appear ignorant or uninteresting, so may offer any answer rather than none at all or fail to ask for clarification if they do not understand the question.

Ethical issues:
- Interviews are ethical, however, the interviewee could feel under pressure to answer questions.

Question 85

explain unstructured interviews in education in relation to methods in context

Answer 85

POWER AND STATUS INEQUALITY -
UIs may overcome barriers of power and status inequalities. Their informality can establish rapport more easily. Labov’s research shows that UIs can encourage interviewees to open up and respond more fully. This produces more valid data, which is particularly useful when dealing with sensitive topics, e.g. bullying.

PRACTICAL ISSUES -
Pupils may be inarticulate or reluctant to talk, so UIs give them space, time and encouragement to work out their responses. However, younger pupils have a shorter attention span, so may find long UIs too demanding.

VALIDITY -
The difficulties in communicating with young people mean that UIs may be suitable, because the interviewer can clarify misunderstandings by explaining questions. However, children may also have more difficulty in keeping to the point and may present contradictory or irrelevant responses.

RELIABILITY -
To put young people at ease, some interviewers try to maintain a relaxed atmosphere by nodding, smiling and making eye contact. However, this cannot be standardised, so different interviewers may obtain very different results, and this would reduce the reliability of their findings.

SOCIAL DESIRABILITY -
Pupils are accustomed to adults ‘knowing better’ and so may defer to them in interviews. Children are more likely than adults to change their original answer when the question is repeated because they think it must have been wrong. Teachers may seek to protect their professional self-image and so are likely to represent themselves in the most positive light. However, an UI allows researchers to probe behind this image.

INTERVIEWER TRAINING -
Unstructured interviewing of young people requires more training than interviewing adults. Interviews need to be trained not to interrupt children’s answers, to tolerate long pauses and to avoid repeating questions, since this may make children change their original answer for fear that it was wrong.

Question 86

define non participant observation (NPO)

Answer 86

Non participant observation (NPO) refers to when the researcher observes the group or event without taking part in it

Question 87

define participant observation (PO)

Answer 87

Participant observation (PO) refers to when the researcher joins the group and participates in its everyday life while observing it

Question 88

How can NPO and PO be conducted?

Answer 88

NPO and PO can be conducted either overtly or covertly

Question 89

define overt observation

Answer 89

Overt observation refers to when the true identify of the researcher is known to those being studied as the sociologist is open with their observations and participants are aware that they are being observed/researched.

Question 90

define covert observation

Answer 90

Cover observation refers to when a study is conducted ‘undercover’. The researcher’s real identity and purpose are concealed from the group being studied. This entails the researcher taking on a false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the group they are studying

Question 91

explain observation methods in sociology

Answer 91

In sociology, most observation studies are unstructured PO which is the method preferred by Interpretivists. However, when positivists use observation methods they prefer NPO in which the researcher uses a structured observation schedule to categorise what systematically has happens. The schedule is a pre-determined list of behaviours or situations the sociologist is interested in. Each time an instance of such behaviour occurs, the sociologist records it on the schedule. The researcher adds up the number of times each event occurs. This produces quantitative data, from which patterns, trends and conclusion can be drawn.

Question 92

Explain overt-non participant observation

Answer 92

ONPO is a non-participatory observational method based on observing people with their consent. Sociologists often use this method when they are studying interactions in organisations such as schools and workplaces etc. Typically, the sociologist would either:

• Sit with an observation schedule and systematically commit observations to this
• S/he would key in their observations on a lap-top
• Let things unfold without pre-empting what to look for and make notes

Question 93

explain the overt-non participant observation study about the Hawthorne effect

Answer 93

One ONPO study is so famous that it has a phenomenon named after it: the Hawthorne Effect. Research was conducted by Elton May in the 1930s at the Hawthorne plant of the West Electric Company in Chicago. He wanted to find out what kinds of incentive and work condition would encourage employees to work harder. He first initiated a series of systematic changes relating to the employees’ coffee breaks, lightening, lunch hours, background music etc. However, whatever change he implemented resulted in increased productivity – when they were given two or three additional coffee breaks, they worked harder, but when they were not permitted any coffee breaks – they still worked harder. Bemused at first, Mayo later realised that the increase in work rates were due to all the attention the workers were gaining from the researcher and the fact that they knew they were being observed/researched – the researcher was the critical factor, the independent variable.

Question 94

explain the Hawthorne effect and its impact

Answer 94

The impact of a researcher’s presence on participants behaviour became known as the Hawthorne Effect. As a result of this effect, researchers are keen to minimise their intrusion in the research process, because when people ‘play to the gallery’ of the researcher, what they do ceases to be natural and ‘normal’ behaviour – this produces invalid data. This doesn’t mean that sociologists must give up on any overt research. If they make allowances for the fact that sometimes what they see is influenced by their presence and if they are adept at blending into the background and being unobtrusive – they will be able to produce valid research findings. As in all observational research, a genuine sensitivity towards one’s surroundings – coupled with a research technique that is minimally intrusive, is guaranteed to enhance the validity of what the researcher is able to observe and record

Question 95

state advantages about overt non-participant observation

Answer 95

ADVANTAGES:
- ethical - as researchers observe with their informed consent.

• produces quantitative data from which patterns, trends and conclusions can be drawn - validity
• genuine sensitivity - towards one’s surroundings coupled with a research technique that is minimally intrusive which enhances the validity of what is observed
• Practical - NPO can be done anywhere - easily accessible
• Reliable - as if NPO is recorded, other sociologists can watch it and analyse it
• Reliable - same observation schedule can be replicated
• Allows researcher to see what goes on with their own eyes - can make judgements and observe body language used
• Researcher can be more open minded as they’re an outsider looking in - less likely to feel sympathy and therefore produce bias data
• More ethical if done overtly - no ethical issues if people are aware they are being observed

Question 96

state disadvantages about overt non-participant observation

Answer 96

DISADVANTAGES:

• NPO can lead to the Hawthorne effect which can produce invalid data as people who are researched are not acting ‘naturally’ which is not representative/reliable (an audience effect). However, it could be argued that the Hawthorne effect can be minimized by accounting for this.
• More detached method - researcher does not get a detailed insight of who they are researching
• Schools may restrict/refuse access for NPO research due to worries about publicity or the image of the school
• hard to gain representative sample in terms of target population
• can lead to Hawthorne effect - people act differently as they know they are being observed
• May be hard to gain accurate results as watching from a distance
• Impression management and Time consuming/costly

-

Question 97

give an example of NPO study (Tryona and Hatcher)

Answer 97

Tryona and Hatcher - studied racism in childrens livesthrough observation in mainly whit schools - focused on 10 - 11 year olds and looked at their behaviour, interactions and responses. Found where black students are a relative minority racism and harrasment more likely. By not participating they could watch body language closely . However presence of researcher results in hawthorne effect

Question 98

state the two type of issues sociologists face when conducting a participant observation study

Answer 98

• Getting in, staying in and getting out.
• Whether to be an overt or covert observation

Question 99

explain the issue of getting in in relation to Participant observation

Getting in, staying in and getting out

Answer 99

Getting in: To do the study, the sociologist (S) must gain entry to the group. Some are easier to enter than others – accessing a football crowd is easier than joining a criminal gang. Making the initial contact with the group may depend on personal skills, having the right connections or pure chance. James Patrick (1973) was able to join a Glasgow gang because he looked quite young and knew one of its members from having taught him in an approved school. To gain entry to a group, the S will have to win their trust and acceptance. It may help if they make friends with a key individual, as Sarah Thornton (1995) did with Kate in her study of the clubbing and rave scene. Sometimes though, the Ss age, gender, class or ethnicity may prove to be an obstacle as Thornton found her age and nationality a barrier: ‘I began my research when I was 23 and slowly aged out of the peer group I was studying. Also, as a Canadian investigating British clubs and raves, I was quite literally a stranger in a strange land.’ She was met with suspicion at first. As Kate’s brother put it: ‘How do you know she won’t sell this to the Daily Mirror?’ However, such barriers can sometimes be overcome. A white researcher, Elliot Liebow (1967) succeeded in gaining acceptance by a black street-corner gang in Washington DC. ‘Getting in’ poses the question of what role the researcher should adopt. Ideally it should be one that does not disrupt the group’s normal patterns and offer a good vantage point from which to make observations. However, this can be difficult.

Question 100

explain the issue of staying in in relation to participant observation

getting in, staying and getting out

Answer 100

Staying in:

Once accepted, the researcher needs to be able to stay in the group and compete the study. This is a key problem for the S: having to be both involved in the group so as to understand it fully, and yet at the same time detached from the group so as to remain objective and unbiased.

One danger of staying in the group is that of becoming over-involved or ‘going native’. By over-identifying with the group, the S becomes biased. When this happens, they have stopped being an objective observer and have simply become a member of the group.

For example, in his study of the Amsterdam police, Maurice Punch (1979) found that in striving to be accepted by the tightly-knit patrol group he was studying, he over-identified with them, even acting as a police officer himself – chasing and holding suspects, searching houses, cars and people and shouting at people who abused his police ‘colleagues’.

At the other extreme, the S may preserve their detachment so as to avoid bias, but by remaining detached they risk not understanding the events they observe. Striking a balance between these two extremes is extremely difficult, as David Downes and Paul Rock (1989) describe: ‘POs try to perform a most intricate feat. They are required to reach the probably unattainable state of one who is both insider and outsider, a person who sees a social world from within it in the manner of a member yet who also stands apart and analyses it in the manner of a stranger.’ A further problem is that the longer the S spends with the group, the less strange its ways come to appear. After a while, the S may cease to notice things that would have struck them as unusual or noteworthy at an earlier stage of the research: they become a non-observing participator

Question 101

explain the issue of getting out in relation to participant observation

getting in, staying in and getting out

Answer 101

Getting out:

In practical terms, getting out of the group at the end of the study generally presents fewer problems than getting in or staying in – particularly for OPO. The S can simply stop the research and leave if there are any problems.

This was Patrick’s experience when studying the Glasgow gang – he was sickened by the violence and abandoned the study abruptly. Nevertheless, leaving a group that a S has become close to can be difficult, as can be re-entering their ‘normal’ life. These problems can be made worse if the research is conducted on and off over a period of time, with multiple ‘crossings’ between the two worlds. The S may also find that loyalty prevents them from fully disclosing everything they have learnt, for fear that this might harm members of the group. For example, in the case of criminal groups, exposure of their activities might lead to prosecution or reprisals against the author.

Question 102

explain the issue of whether to be an overt or covert observation in relation to participant observation

Answer 102

WHETHER TO BE IN AN OVERT AND COVERT OBSERVATION:

Sociologists must decide whether to use OPO or CPO. OPO avoids ethical issues and allows the S to ask naïve but important questions that only an outsider could ask and take notes openly. However, it risks creating the Hawthorne Effect - where those who know they are being observed behave differently – this undermines the validity of the research.

A group may refuse permission for the research or only allow the S to see what they wanted him/her to see. Because of these problems, some Ss choose CPO. Nigel Fielding (1981) used CPO when researching the national Front because he believed he would encounter hostility if they knew he was a S. However, CPO raises important practical and ethical issues:

(a) Practical issues: It requires the S to keep up an act and may call for detailed knowledge of the group’s way of life before joining it. There is always the risk of the Ss cover being ‘blown’ by even a trivial mistake. Patrick was almost found out when he bought his suit with cash instead of credit and when he fastened the middle button of his jacket rather than the top one – things the gang would not have done. Or when he was handed an axe to use in a fight. Furthermore, the S cannot take notes openly and must rely on their memory and the opportunity to write them in secret. They cannot ask naïve but important questions and there is still some scope for the Hawthorne Effect – as the presence of a new member (the S) to the group, can behaviour.

(b) Ethical issues: These often conflict with the practical advantage of observing natural behaviour. It is immoral to deceive people, obtaining information by pretending to be their friend or ‘in the same boat’. Ss may have to lie about their reasons for leaving the group when they have completed their research, they may have to participate in immoral or illegal activities as part of their ‘cover’ role and as witnesses to such activities – they may have a moral or legal duty to intervene or report them.

Question 103

state advantages of participant observation

Answer 103

Validity: What people say they do when interviewed or researched via a questionnaire, and what they do in reality, are not always the same. Therefore, observations provide rich qualitative data that provides a picture of how people really behave. Supporters of PO argue that this is the method’s main strength, and most of its other advantages are linked to this.

Insight: The best way to truly understand what something is like is to experience it. Sociologists call this personal or subjective understanding, verstehen (empathy) – an understanding that comes from putting yourself in another person’s place.

Flexibility: PO is a very flexible method. Rather than starting with a fixed hypothesis and pre-set questions, it allows the sociologist to enter into the research with a relatively open mind about what they will find. Therefore, as new situations are encountered, new explanations can be developed and the sociologist can change direction to follow them up there and then. In this way, any theories that the researcher produces are ‘grounded’ in real life. This open-mindedness allows the researcher to discover things that other methods may miss. As Whyte noted, simply by observing, ‘I learned answers to questions that I would not have had the sense to ask if I had been using interviews.’

Practical Advantages: Sometimes PO may be the only viable method for studying certain groups, particularly deviant groups or activities who would not cooperate with research. As Yablonsky points out, a teenage gang is likely to see researchers who come armed with questionnaires as the unwelcome representatives of authority. In contrast, PO enables the sociologist to build a rapport and gain the group’s trust and has proved a successful approach to the study of delinquent gangs, football hooligans, thieves, drug users, religious sects and other ‘outsider’ groups. Furthermore, PO is a useful method to reveal realities, where questioning would be ineffective.

Question 104

state disadvantages of participant observation

Answer 104

Practical disadvantages:

(a) It is very time-consuming, for example Whyte’s study took 4 years to complete;

(b) it can be personally stressful and demanding, particularly if covert; the researcher needs to be trained to notice sociologically relevant information;

(c) it requires observational and interpersonal skills that not everyone possesses;

(d) the social status and personal characteristics of the researcher may limit what types of groups can be studied and finally,

(e) many groups may not cooperate with this type of study, which is often why covert methods are used and why powerless groups are studied.

Ethical problems: CPO in particular raises serious ethical difficulties, including deceiving people in order to obtain information about them and participating in illegal or immoral activities in the course of sociological research.

Representativeness: PO studies are usually very small and the sample is often selected haphazardly. This does not provide a sound basis for making generalisations. As Downes and Rock note, although PO provides valid insights into the particular group studied, it is doubtful how far these internally valid insights are externally valid, that is generalizable to the wider population.

Reliability: With PO, so much depends on the unique personal skills and characteristics of the researcher that it is highly unlikely any other researcher would be able to replicate the original study.

Bias and lack of objectivity: (a) The risk of becoming too involved and ‘going native’ makes it difficult to remain objective and a one-sided, biased view of the group may emerge;

(b) Loyalty to the group or fear of reprisals may lead the sociologist to conceal sensitive information and therefore those who read the published study are denied a full and objective account;

(c) As it is an effective method for ‘telling it like it is’ from the social actor’s point of view, some may be biased towards their subjects’ viewpoints. This is compounded as PO often attracts sociologists whose sympathies lie with the underdog.

Validity: Allowing the sociologist to become an insider, PO gives an authentic and valid account of the social actor’s world, enabling verstehen. Positivists reject this claim arguing that PO provides the subjective and biased impressions of the observer. It does not ‘tell it like it is’, rather PO tells it as the observer sees it and what s/he sees worthy of recording, which are likely to fit in with the researcher’s pre-existing views and prejudices. A further threat to validity comes from the Hawthorne Effect: the very presence of the observer may make the subjects act differently – which defeats the main aim, to produce a naturalistic account of human behaviour.

Lack of a concept of structure: Interpretivists favour PO as it is a useful tool for examining micro-level interactions and meanings first hand. However, structural sociologists argue it ignores the wider structural forces that shape our behaviour. Therefore, seeing things only through the actors’ eyes will never give us the complete picture as they may be unaware of the structural forces shaping their behaviour.

Question 105

explain using participant observation in relation to methods in context

Answer 105

VALIDITY:
PO is more likely to overcome the problem of status differences between pupils and researcher, thus allowing the researcher to gain acceptance by pupils, resulting in more valid data. Nevertheless, both teachers and pupils are skilled at altering their behaviour when being observed by those in authority. This makes it difficult for researchers to know if the behaviour they are seeing in schools is genuine.

PRACTICAL ISSUES :
Schools are complex places and it may take an observer weeks, or even months to understand how a school functions. However, classroom observation may be less disruptive than interviews, so it may be easier to gain permission to observe lessons than to interview pupils and teachers. Nevertheless, observation is restricted by the school timetable, holidays, the head teacher’s control over access etc. There is not much privacy in school – they are very busy places, so recording observations can be problematic.

ETHICAL ISSUES:
Pupils are more vulnerable than adults and may not be able to give informed consent. This means that classroom observation normally has to be overt. There are also greater ethical issues when dealing with schools in terms of protecting the school’s identity. A poor public image as a result of the research can damage a school’s reputation and the education of its pupils.

THE HAWTHORNE EFFECT:
Most observation has to be overt – there are few ‘cover’ roles the researcher can adopt because he or she stands out as being much older than the pupils. The Hawthorne Effect is therefore unavoidable to some degree. Teachers may be suspicious of an observer in their classroom and later their normal behaviour.

REPRESENTATIVENESS:
PO of schools and classrooms can only be carried out on a very small scale. The education system is vast, with over 35,000 schools and colleges. This makes representativeness virtually impossible to achieve using this method.

Question 106

explain official statistics and what are the types

Answer 106

OS are quantitative data gathered by the government or other official bodies and are collected on births, deaths, marriages, divorces, exam results, crime, suicide, unemployment, health etc. The Census is a major source of OS and the government uses statistics for policy-making, e.g. statistics on birth are used plan the number of school places required. There are two ways of collecting OS: (a) Registration: for example, the law requires parents to register births and (b) Official surveys: such as the Census or the General Household Survey. In addition to OS, organisations such as charities, trade unions, businesses, churches etc. also produce statistics.

Question 107

explain registration and official surveys in relation to official statistics

Answer 107

Registration: for example, the law requires parents to register births and (b) Official surveys: such as the Census or the General Household Survey. In addition to OS, organisations such as charities, trade unions, businesses, churches etc. also produce statistics.

Question 108

state practical advantages and disadvantages with using official statistics

Answer 108

PRACTICAL:
Advantages:
(a) They are a free source of huge amounts of data. Only the state can afford to conduct large-scale social surveys such as the Census and only they have the power to compel citizens to provide the information.

(b) They allow comparisons between groups.

(c) Because they are collected at regular intervals, they show patterns and trends over time. This means that sociologists can use them for ‘before and after’ studies to show cause and effect.

Disadvantages:

(a) The government collects statistics for its own use and not for the benefit of sociologists, so there may be none available on particular topics.

(b) The definitions that the state uses in collecting data may be different from those that sociologists would use, e.g. may define poverty or truancy differently and this would impact on measurement.

(c) If definitions change over time, it may make comparisons difficult, e.g. the official definition of unemployment changed over 30 times during the 1980s and early 1990s.

Question 109

explain other issues and advantages with official statistics for factors such as representativeness, reliability, validity etc

Answer 109

REPRESENTATIVENESS:
Because OS often cover large numbers and because care is taken with sampling procedures, they often provide a more representative sample than sociological research would. They may therefore make a better basis for making generalisations and testing hypotheses. However, some statistics are less representative than others. Statistics gathered by compulsory registration such as births, deaths, marriages, divorces or the number of pupils in a school, are highly representative. By contrast, statistics which are not based on registration, e.g. crime statistics or those collected through surveys, are less likely to be representative.

RELIABILITY:
OS are generally seen as a reliable source of data. They are compiled in a standardised way by trained staff following set procedures therefore in principle any trained person will allocate a given case to the same category. However, the reality is that trained personnel can still make errors when recording data.

VALIDITY:
A major problem with using OS is that of validity. Do they actually measure the thing that they claim to measure? Hard statistics do succeed in doing this, e.g. much demographic data do give a very valid picture. However soft statistics do not, e.g. police statistics do not record all crimes or schools do not record all racist incidents. Attempts have been made by the Crime Survey of England and Wales to overcome OS on crime by using self-report and victim surveys.

Question 110

explain theoretical issues in relation to official statistics

• positivists, interpretivists and Marxists

Answer 110

Whether OS are viewed as useful or not largely depends on the theoretical perspective adopted by the sociologist:

(a) Positivists: see statistics as a valuable source of data for sociologists as they take it for granted that OS are social facts; true and objective. They often use OS to test their hypotheses. For example, in Durkheim’s (1897) study on suicide he hypothesised that suicide is caused by a lack of social integration. Using the comparative method he argued that Protestant and Catholic religions differ in how well they integrate their members. Using the OS he was able to show that this was reflected in differences in the suicide rate between these religions and so his hypothesis was proved correct.

(b) Interpretivists: regard OS as lacking validity, arguing that they do not represent real things or social facts but are socially constructed. In Atkinson’s (1971) view suicide statistics do not represent the real rate of suicides, but merely the number of deaths that coroners have labelled as suicides. Therefore, the statistics tell us more about the role of coroners rather than about the actual cases of suicide.

(c) Marxists: take a different view. They do not regard OS as merely the outcome of labels applied by officials such as coroners, instead they see OS as serving the interests of capitalism. They believe that the state is not neutral in a capitalist society, but serves the interests of the capitalist class. Therefore, OS serve capitalist interests e.g. unemployment statistics underestimate the numbers unemployed and its damaging effect on the working class. Similarly, Marxists argue that official police statistics systematically underestimate the number of people taking part in demonstrations against government policies - this gives the public the impression that there is less opposition to capitalism.

Question 111

explain official statistics in relation to methods in context in education

Answer 111

PRACTICAL ISSUES:
The government collects statistics from every school in the country. This saves sociologists time and money, as well as allowing them to make comparisons, e.g. between the achievements of different social classes, ethnic groups or genders. Statistics also allow us to examine trends over time, e.g. in achievement or attendance. Governments are interested in many of the same educational issues as sociologists, e.g. subject choice, racism in schools and inequality of achievement, so the statistics produced by government are likely to be very useful to researchers. However, the official definitions of key concepts and issues may differ from those that sociologists use, e.g. measuring achievement by 5 A*-C grades at GCSE.

REPRESENTATIVENESS:
Some OS on education are highly representative, e.g. all state schools have to complete a school census three times a year. It would be impossible for researchers to collect this quantity and range of data themselves. These statistics cover virtually every pupil in the country, so they are highly representative.

RELIABILITY:
The government uses standard definitions and categories in the collection of educational statistics. The same collection process is replicated from year to year, allowing direct comparisons to be made, e.g. of exam performance. However, governments may change the definitions and categories, e.g. several definitions of ‘value added’ have been used to measure school performance. This reduces reliability.

VALIDITY:
Interpretivists challenge the validity of educational statistics, seeing them as socially constructed, e.g. pupil attendance statistics are the outcome of definitions and decisions made by parents, teachers and pupils. Schools may manipulate their statistical records because there is pressure on them to present themselves positively in order to maintain their funding and parental support. This undermines the validity of the statistics. However, some educational statistics are less open to manipulation, e.g. pupil numbers on roll and exam results.

Question 112

explain what is meant by documents

Answer 112

A document relates to any written texts, such as personal diaries, government reports, novels, newspapers, letters, emails, blogs, web pages, parish records, medical records etc. ‘Texts’ themselves include paintings, photographs, drawings etc. and sounds and images from film, TV, radio and other media output would also be included.

Question 113

state the types of documents that sociologists may use

Answer 113

• public documents
• personal documents
• historical documents

Question 114

explain public documents

Answer 114

PUBLIC DOCUMENTS: are produced by organisations such as government departments, schools, welfare agencies, businesses and charities. Some of their output may be available for sociological use, e.g. Ofsted reports, records of parliamentary debates etc. Public documents also include official government reports of public enquiries.

Question 115

explain personal documents

Answer 115

PERSONAL DOCUMENTS: include items such as letters, diaries, photo albums etc. These are first-person accounts of social events and personal experiences and they generally include the writer’s feelings and attitudes. A famous early study using documents is Thomas and Znaniecki’s (1919) research ‘The Polish Peasant in Europe and America’ which used diaries, letters and autobiographies to gain an insight into people’s personal experiences of migration. They also used public documents such as newspaper articles and court and social work records to explore their experiences.

Question 116

explain historical documents

Answer 116

HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS: can be either personal or public documents. If we want to study the past, historical documents are usually the only source of information (in cases of the recent past, there may be people still alive who can be questioned). The study of families and households illustrates the type of historical documents that have been used: (a) Aries used paintings of children and child-rearing manuals in his study of childhood; (b) Laslett used parish records to study family structures in pre-industrial England and (c) Anderson used parliamentary reports on child labour, as well as data from the 1851 Census to study changes in family structure in (19th Preston.

Question 117

explain how documents are assessed

Answer 117

ASSESSING DOCUMENTS:
Scott (1990) argues that when it comes to assessing documentary sources, the general principles are the same as those for any other type of sociological evidence. He puts forward 4 criteria for evaluating documents:

Authenticity: Is the document what it claims to be? Are there any missing pages and if it is a copy, is it free from errors? Who actually produced the document?

Credibility: Is the document believable? Was the author sincere? Is the document accurate? For example, politicians may write diaries intended for publication to inflate their own importance. Stein (2003) notes that documents on the internet are often not checked for accuracy before publication.

Representativeness: Is the evidence in the document typical? If this question cannot be answered, then it may not be safe to generalise from it. Not all documents survive and not all documents are available for researchers to use. The 30 year rule prevents access to some official documents for 30 years and if classified as official secrets, they may not be available at all. Furthermore, certain groups who do not keep diaries or write letters etc. may be unrepresented.

Meaning: The researcher may need special skills to interpret and understand the meaning of a document and what it meant to the writer and the intended audience. Different sociologists may interpret the same document differently.

Question 118

state advantages of using documents

Answer 118

Although they have to be assessed carefully by the sociologist before they are used as sources of evidence, they do have important advantages: (a) Personal documents allow the sociologist to get up close to the social actor’s reality, providing a rich detailed source of qualitative data. For this reason, Interpretivists favour them. (b) Sometimes they are the only source of information, for example in studying the past. (c) By providing another source of data, documents offer an extra check on the results obtained by primary methods. (d) They are a cheap source of data and they are also time efficient.

• personal documents allow sociologist to get up to close with the social actors reality and experiences
• personal documents provide rich detailed sources on qualitative data
• interpretivists favour them as they provide qualitative data
• documents may be the only source of information for studying the past in a more in depth way
• documents provide another source of data that acts as extra check on the results obtained through primary methods
• cheap source of data and time efficient

Question 119

state disadvantages with documents

Answer 119

• documents on the internet are not usually checked for accuracy for publication which leads to credibility issues
• credibility issues - politicians may write diaries for publication to inflate their importance rather than act as a source of data or accurate recount of events
• representativeness issues not all documents are safe to generalise - as not all documents are available fore researchers to use with the 30 year rule preventing access to official documents for 30 years
• certain groups do not keep diaries or write letters etc which may be unrepresentative

Question 120

explain content analysis in relation to documents

Answer 120

Content analysis is a method for dealing systematically with the contents of documents. It is commonly used in analysing media documents such as the news or advertisements. Although the content is qualitative, CA enables the sociologist to produce quantitative data from these sources. Lobban (1974) used CA to analyse gender roles in children’s reading schemes, while Tuchman (1978) used it to analyse television’s portrayal of women. Both found that women were portrayed in a limited number of stereotypical roles.

Question 121

state advantages of content analysing

Answer 121

CA has several advantages:
(a) It is cheap.
(b) It is easy to find sources of material.
(c) Positivists see it as a useful source of objective, quantitative, scientific data. In contrast, Interpretivists argue that simply counting up the number of times something appears in a document tells us nothing about its meaning.

Question 122

Explain case studies

Answer 122

Case studies refers to research that examines a single case or example such as a single school, family or workplace, often using several methods or sources

Question 123

State positives about case studies

Answer 123

• practical - studying a single sample/cluster - not having to study several groups
• good source for indepth and rich qualitative data - micro level of analysis
• interpretivists - real benefits exploring - case - detail
• source of valid data

Question 124

state negatives of case studies

Answer 124

• lacks detachment or objectivity as level of research involvement
• implications of validity of the data
• limited - representativeness - focuses single case/ study - micro level of analysis and not macro - prevents generations
• positivists are crucial - not representative
• time-consuming - nature of the in-depth study is very time consuming

Question 125

Explain longitudinal studies

Answer 125

Longitudinal studies follow/research a sample of people over an extended period of time. However, the research is collected at regular intervals rather than continuously.

These studies usually use questionnaires and/or interviews, but other methods may also be used.

Examples include JWB Douglas’ study following 5,632 children all born in the first week in March 1946 through their schooling; the National Childhood Development Study (NCDS) has been running since 1958 and the 7Up study which started in 1964 with a sample of 7 year old children and followed their lives at 7 year intervals.

Question 126

state positives of longitudinal studies

Answer 126

+ They trace/ record developments over time, rather than just taking a one-off ‘snapshot’ of one moment.

+ By making comparisons over time, they can identify causes. - identifying cause and affect

+ Able to build up a large amount of data to gain detailed insights.

+ macro level of analysis

+ practical - over a period of time so its not representative at certain intervals

Question 127

state negatives of longitudinal studies

Answer 127

• It requires a lot of commitment, by the researchers and the researched. Therefore, it is very time-consuming, results cannot be obtained quickly and it is costly.
• Sample attrition: people are likely to drop out and those who drop out may not be typical of those who stay in, making the remaining samples less representative.
• The large amounts of data produced can be difficult to analyse
• not detached - lacks objectivity
• risk of research going native or over-identifying
• not every group is typical of the wider target population not representative

Question 128

Explain triangulation or methodological pluralism

Answer 128

In reality, many sociologists often use a combination of methods in their research. For example, they may begin with a limited number of in-depth, unstructured interviews to gain insights; these can then be used to develop questions for a questionnaire given to larger sample.

This process is called triangulation or methodological pluralism. It involves using two or more sources or methods to obtain a more rounded picture by studying the same thing from a plurality of viewpoints.

It enables one method to overcome the shortcomings of another.

Question 129

evaluate triangulation

Answer 129

The idea is that different methods can complement each other – the strengths of one counter the weaknesses of the other.

Combining them provides the best of both worlds:

reliable and representative quantitative data covering large numbers of cases (macro analysis), as favoured by positivists,

valid qualitative data looking at a smaller number in depth (micro analysis), as preferred by interpretivists.