Research methods Flashcards
what is qualitative data
non numerical , language based data collected through interviews open questions or content analysis
what is qualitative data used in
social psychology
what are two strengths of using qualitative data
- represents the complexities of human behaviour as thoughts not reduced by numbers - a holistic approach
- provides rich detail meaning higher validity as people given free range to express thoughts
what are two disadvantages of using qualitative data
- more difficult to analyse and draw conclusions from
- interpretation of data is likely to be subjective , lowering credibility and validity
what is a research example of qualitative data being used
sherif et al
what is quantitative data
numerical data that can be statistically analysed , could be collected through observations and closed question questionnaires
what are two strengths of using quantitative data
- easier to analyse and draw conclusions from
- a more objective measure - more reliable - lack of bias gives great credibility
what are two disadvantages of using quantitative data
- may not express ppts precise thoughts as provided answers are fixed - data may be lower in validity
- oversimplifies reality by suggesting there are simple answers - essentially a reductionist approach
what is a research example of using quantitative data
- the mean digit spans of children in the study conducted by sebastian and hernandez-gil
what is primary data
- info collected specifically for the purpose of the current study
what are two strengths of using primary data
- its specifically designed around the aim of the study as the researcher knows exactly the type of data they need for their research
- it is authentic as it comes first hand from the ppts - means data may be more useful
what two weaknesses of using primary data
- more time and effort to gather as designing and piloting data collection methods and then collecting the data itself takes time and money
- a researcher could spend time collecting their data to discover their method was flawed - might have been a better use of time and money to adjust research and use existing data
what is a research example of primary data being used
- a majority of studies involve primary data collection
what is secondary data
- data in a research study that has been collected previously for another study - could involve using governement stats - its second hand data
what are two strengths of using secondary data
- enable access to larger sets of data for example psychiatric hospital records provide info about diagnosis of close relatives
- saves time in designing data collection methods - less time and expense
what are two disadvantages of using secondary data
- might not quite fit needs of current study or may be outdated , not quite complete or poor quality
- cant be sure of how valid the research is - dont know how those researchers collected that data - dont know of any methodology flaws- reduces validity
what is a random sample
a sample produced through random techniques e.g. people given numbers and drawn from a hat or number generator - every member of target pop has equal chance of being selected
what are two strengths of using a random sample
- unbiased - equal chance of selection
- possible to choose specific sub group - easier to select
what are two disadvantages of using a random sample
- takes more time / effort - must obtain list of all members of target population
- often not truly random e.g some ppts may not agree to take part or due to the selection method
what is a volunteer sample
-sample produced by asking for people willing to take oart e.g. by posters , emails or online surveys
what are two strengths of using a volunteer sample
- convenient for finding willing ppts and reducing dropout rates
- good way to get specialised group of ppts - e.g. is research being done on medical student it mkes sense to put posters in medical school rather than standing in a shop looking for medical students
what are two disadvantages of using a volunteer sample
- sample is biased because volunteers more likely to be motivated
- volunteers more likely to be willing to be helpful - increases demand characteristics
what is a stratified sample
- ppts selected from different subgroups (strata)
e.g. age gender religion - group represented as a percentage of target pop
- percentage dictates what percentage of ppts should be part of that subgroup
what are two strengths of using a stratified sample
- most representative - proportionate to target pop
- specific subgroups can be chosen according to variables considered important by researcher
what are two disadvantages of using a stratified sample
- decision about sub group subject to bias - reduces representativeness
- method involves lengthy process and ppts may not agree to take part
what is an opportunity sample
- ppts produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study - e.g. asking people on the street , common room , apartment building
what are two strengths of using opportunity sample
- most convenient - little preparation
- may be only technique available because whole population cant be listed
what are two disadvantages of using opportunity sample
- biased because sample is drawn from specific part of population
- ppts may refuse to take part -
what is time sampling
- a method of gathering behavioural data where the observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals
what are two strengths of using time sampling
- can give an indication of the order in which events happen and the relative time spent on each behaviour
- data recording is likely to be reliable because there is a specific focus that allows data to be collected in a consistent manner
what are two weaknesses of using time sampling
- records more difficult to obtain as timings have to be precise and if they are indicated by a timer that makes noise this can led to demand characteristics
- observations may not be made by multiple observers and depending on where the researcher is in the room and how many people they are observing may affect findings as behaviours may be missed
what is event sampling
- when the observer records how many times a specific behaviour occurs during a study
what are two strengths of event sampling
- it can record every occurrence of each behaviour to give a complete record
- records are easy to obtain and analyse as theyare just totals
what are two weaknesses of using event sampling
- gives no indication of the relative time spent on each behavioural category
- gives no indication of the order in which events from each behavioural category occur
what is a repeated measures design
- each ppts takes part in every condition being tested - each condition is one level of the IV - may be a control condition
what are two strengths of the repeated measures design
- good control of ppt variables because same person is tested twice - ppt variables same across all conditions
- fewer ppts needed than independent groups e.g. if you have twenty ppts you end up with 20 results instead of ten - more data makes conclusion more dependable
what are two weaknesses of using repeated measures design
- order effects produced e.g. ppt may be better on the second test because getting better with experinence ( practice effect) or may perform worse because bored or tired ( fatigue effect)
- ppts may guess aim of study - doing both conditions means research aims more obvious ( demand characteristics ? )
how can you deal with the weaknesses of repeated measures design
- can control order effects with counter balancing
what is an independent groups design
- different ppts allocated to two or more experimental groups representing different levels of the IV - may be a control group
what are two strengths of independent groups design
- avoids order effects because ppts only tested once
- avoids ppts guessing aim of experiment - less chance of demand characteristics
what are two weaknesses of using independent groups design
- need more ppts than with repeated measures
- no control of ppt variables e.g. one group more intelligent than other or younger and thats why they got better scores
how can you deal with the weaknesses of independent groups design
- lack of control of ppt variables can be dealt with by using randomisation of ppts to conditions i.e. ppts are allocated to group using a random technique which means ppt variables should not cluster into one group
what is a matched pairs design
ppts who are similar on key variables e.g. age are paired - one member placed in group a and other in group b - means two groups of ppts with each given one level of the IV
what are two strengths of using matched pairs design
- controls for ppts variables because of the matching
- avoids order effects because there are still independent groups so a ppt wont do both conditions
what are two weaknesses of using matched pairs design
- very time consuming to match pairs on key variables
- may not control all ppt variables becuase you can only match on variables known to be relevant , but it could be that other variables are important
how can the weaknesses of matched pairs design be managed
- should start with a large group of ppts to ensure you can obtain matched pairs on key variables
what is a hypothesis
- a statement about the effect of the IV and DV . it should include all levels of the IV , it should be precise and testable - must be operationalised
what is a directional hypothesis
- one tailed
- states the direction of the hypothesis
e.g. people who sleep for eight hours have a higher score on a memory test, with 20 words following a 10-minute interference task, than those who sleep for five hours.
what is a non directional hypothesis
- two tailed
- just states there is a difference
e.g. People who sleep for eight hours perform differently on a memory test than those who sleep for five hours.
what is a null hypothesis
a statement of no difference
e.g. There is no difference between the memory test scores of people who sleep for eight hours than those who sleep for five hours.
what are two strengths of using a hypothesis
- becomes easy to decide as to what type of data is to be collected and what type is to be ignored
- it helps the investigator in knowing the direction in which they are to move
what is a weakness of using a hypothesis
- hypothesis can bias your interpretation - look for evidence that confirms your hypothesis on purpose
what is a closed question
- fixed number of possible answers
- provides quantitative data
what are two strengths of using closed questions
- quantitative data - easy to analyse and draw conclusions as it can be summarised using graphs and averages and can be compared
- answers are objective and interpreted the same by all researchers
what are two weaknesses of using closed questions
- unexpressed feelings will be missed due to determined answers - lowers validity
- over simplifies reality - suggests there are simple answers for complex behaviours / thoughts
what is an example of closed questions being used in psychology
becker et al - eat 26
what is an open question
- respondents provide their own answers ( not limited)
- produces qualitative data
what are two strengths of using open questions
- qualitative data - increases validity due to rich detail - given freedom to express what they actually think
- researchers may find unepected findings as ppts can provide any answer
what are two weaknesses of using open questions
difficult to draw conclusions due to wide range of answers - researchers may look for patterns instead of descriptive stats
- subjective interpretation of data- each researcher may interpret differently
what is an example of open questions used in psychology
social practical about obedience
what is a ranked scale
- type of closed questions
- respondents asked to assess their views using a scale
what are two strengths of using ranked scale
- objective way to represent feelings and attitudes
- quantitative data - easy to analyse and draw conclusions as it can be summarised using graphs and averages and can be compared
what are two weaknesses of using ranked scale
- ppts may respond in the same way to all questions regardless of context
- social desiriability bias - lowers validity
what is an example of ranked scale being used in psychology
adorno et al
what is a questionnaire
- respondents record their own answers , they are provided in written form and there is no face to face contact with another person
structured as questions are pre determined
self report data
what are two strengths of using questionnaires
- can easily be repeated so that data can be collected from large numbers of people relatively quickly - can all do it at same time
- respondents may feel more willing to reveal personal info . confidential info rather than in an interview because they feel more anonymous
what are two weaknesses of using questionnaires
- people dont always tell the truth - might be because they dont know about the topic or ont know how they would respond in a situation or because of social desirability bias
- the sample may be biased because only certain types of people fill out questionnaires - literate people who have the time
may be more motivated and prone to guessing aims of the study - demand characteristics
what is an interview
- when questions are delivered in real time - respondent answers each question as it is presented by the interviewer
what is a structured interview
predetermined questions delivered by an interviewer who does not probe beyond answers received but may answer questions from interviewee
what is a semi structured interview
- some questions are predetermined but also new questions are developed as the interview proceeds
what is an unstructured interview
- no questions are decided in advance and questions develop during the interview
what are two strengths of using interviews as self report data
- respondent can ask the interviewer questions such as asking for an explanation of the questions - increases clarity and provides more relevant and valid answers
- with semi structured and unstructured interviews the questions can be adapted for each person providing more detailed information from each respondent
what are two weaknesses of using interviews as self report data
- ppts may be reluctant to reveal personal information in a face to face interview leading to info being left out and reduced validity
- semi structured and unstructured interviews may be more affected by interviewer bias as they are developing more questions on the spot causing them to be prone to asking a leading question
give one example from social and one example from learning where interviews are used
social - milgram interviewed after the experiment
learning - becker interviewed ppts to see their general attitudes to eating and body image
what is an experiment
a research method which demonstrates casual relationships
- all have an IV and DV
what is a laboratory experiment
- conducted in a controlled environment
- ppts go to experimenter
what are two strengths of using lab experiments
- high reliability , more replicable , more standardised
- control of extraneous variables - more valid
what are two weaknesses of using laboratory experiments
- low ecological validity
- normally smaller scaled and not generalisable
hat is a field experiment
- conducted in a more everyday setting than lab
- experimenter goes to ppts
t are two strengths of using field experiments
- stronger ecological validity
- less demand characteristics , ppts less likely to figure out aim
what are two weaknesses of using field experiments
- lower internal validity due to less control over extraneous variables
- less easy to replicate - more situational variables
what is an independent variable
- factor that is directly manipulated by the researcher in order to see effect on the dependent variable
-For example, in Baddeley’s Classic study the variable changed was the types of words (semantically similar and dissimilar and acoustically similar and dissimilar) in the word lists.
what is the dependent variable
- the thing measured by the experimenter to assess effects of the independent variable.
- For Example, in Baddeley’s Classic study the number of words recalled.
what is an extraneous variable
- any other variable that might potentially affect the DV and confuse results
- includes ppt and situational variables
what is a situational variable
- are a feature of the environment that may affect performance such as distracting noise or time of day.
what is a participant variable
- a characteristic of the participants such as age or intelligence
- These should be controlled by either having everyone in the sample as the same, for example everyone being the same age. For example, in Brendgen et al, all the twins were the same age.
what is a confounding variable
- special type of extraneous variable where there is changes systematically with the IV
- For example, in baddeley we cant be sure that the results were due to the words being similar or it being from order effect.
what is operationalism
- variables must be operationalised, defined in a way they are easily tested.
- For example, in Baddeley recall is measured in number of words.
what is observational research
watch or listen to what ppts do
what is overt observation
ppt is aware of being observed
what is covert observation
observations made w out ppt knowledge
what is a structured observation
some variables are manipulated by the researcher
what is a naturalistic observation
everything is left as usual
what is participant observation
observer is a ppt in the behaviour being studied
what is non ppt observation
observer is not a ppt in the behaviour being studied
what is a strength of observational research
- what people say they do is often different from what they actually do, which may be better than self-reporting a behaviour.
what is two strength of overt observation
- avoids lack of informed consent as participants decide to participate.
- Easier to see what is going on so the observer doesn’t have to hide.
what is a strength of using covert observation
- participants behave more naturally because they’re unaware of being observed
what are two strengths of using structured observation
- controlled environment allows study of unusual behaviour
- possible to draw tentative causal conclusions
what are two strengths of using naturalistic observation
- a realistic picture of natural behaviour so high ecological validity
- also a useful method for new areas of research
what are two weaknesses of using observational research
- expectations affect observation, so the observer may ‘see’ what they want to see.
- Also, only some information is given, so there is no information on thoughts or feelings.
what are two weaknesses of using overt observation
- ppts alter behaviour if they know they are being observed
- also takes time for informed consent and debreifing
what are two weaknesses of covert observation
- ethical issues with informed consent and not being able to withdraw data
- may be unethical to record behaviour in public
what are two weaknesses of structured observation
- unnatural environment so may lack ecological validity
-if ppts aware of being observed they may change their behaviour
what are two weaknesses of using naturalistic observation
- if observation is covert - ethical issues due to informed consent
- difficult to draw conclusions as its focus is too wide
what are two strengths of using participant observation
- Special insight into the behaviour, from an inside perspective, greater familiarity so can record things in greater detail
- Closer to the action so things can be heard and seen in more detail
what are two weaknesses of using ppt observation
- Observer bias as the observer is familiar with the situation so they may be more subjective
- Harder to measure and monitor behaviour unobtrusively, so the study is more likely to be overt so increased chance of demand characteristics
what are two strengths of using non ppt observation
- Higher objectivity due to psychological and physical distance
- Observation is unobtrusive, so ppts are less likely to be self conscious so the results are more valid as they behave more naturally (higher ecological validity)
what are two weaknesses if using non ppt observation
- More likely to misinterpret communications within the group because they are an outsider, so validity of the observation is reduced.
- observer may see less
what is a twin study
- a study where twins are compared on a specific trait to see how similar they are
- if trait is completely genetic then MZ will have 100% concordance rate
- if environment a bog factor then DZ will have higher concordance rate
what are two strengths of using twin studies
- allows researchers to investigate genetic influences as it’s assumed the only difference between MZ and DZ twins is genetic.
- Samples for twin studies are usually representative as they are collected from twin registries which hold data of thousands of twins and variables
what are two weaknesses of using twin studies
- Equal environment assumption- Over estimate genetic influence as we assume MZ and DZ twins have the same environment whereas in reality MZ twins will have a more similar env than DZ as they look the same so therefore are more likely to be treated in the same way.
- They don’t identify specific genes involved so is only a starting point for genetic research
How do twin studies link to biological psychology
Brendgen- investigated the influence of the env and genetics on the development of physics and social aggression.
Sample- 234 twin pairs (mix of MZ and same and different gender DZ)
what are adoption studies
- genetic implications if children more similar to their biological parents than adoptive
- environmental factors implicated if the inverse is true
what are two strengths of using adoption studies
- They remove the extraneous variable of the environment. In twin studies, if MZ twins are similar, it’s unclear if the similarity is due to the environment or the same genes. In adoption studies, environment and genes aren’t shared.
- Show that twin studies overestimate genetic factors. Eley used adoption studies to research depression and found that environmental factors are more important.
what are two weaknesses of using adoption studies
- Children may be adopted to families similar to their biological parents and so environmental influences may be similar and similarities to biological relatives may be due to environment similarities rather than genes
- People who are adopt may be unrepresentative of the population. They are usually better educated and have lower rates of mental illness, therefore conclusions may not generalise
what are animal experiments / studies
- Non-human animals are used in psychology research as it is considered practical and ethical to conduct experiment to animals and not humans
what are two strengths in using animals is research
- It is preferable to use animals for experiments as there is less ethical issues for example informed consent is not required and psychological/physical harm is more accepted. It would not be possible to keep humans in a laboratory for lengthy research.
- It takes less time to look at how experiments can affect animals over a period of time as many animals have a shorter lifespan than humans for example mice live for 5 to 7 years so you can see if experiment (or social factors) done when they are younger can affect them when they are old and can apply them to humans or if it affects them for a short period of time
what are two weaknesses of using animals in research
- It is not generalisable to human, especially when talking about complex behaviours like addiction. This is due to the brain structure of animals that can impact behaviours. Humans have a much higher cognitive thinking so biological experiments can’t be generalised. also in learning cant be generalised at animals have different motivations to humans
- It is unethical too as experiments like include animals can cause them pain and suffering as it ranges from being kept in cages and death and experiments can not outweigh the harm caused like Pavlov and the dogs.
what are some research examples of animals being used in research
pavlov - dogs
skinner - rats
alexander - rats and morphine
wagner - bollovkless mice
what is a case study
- idiographic
- about single people or events
- both qualitative and quantitative data produced
- retrospective
- naturally occurring IV
what are two strengths of using case studies
- They allow researchers to observe and record information about rare, impractical, or unethical conditions and behaviours.
- gather qualitative data which can be very rich in detail
what are two weaknesses of using case studies
- Ungeneralizable, small sample not representative of whole population.
- Ethical issues such as confidentiality and anonymity - unique characteristics
what is a PET scan
- measures metabolic activity in areas of the brain which are active. Uses small injection of radioactive tracer (like glucose). Brain areas which are more active will use more tracer and light up more. Information is sent to computer and active ares shown in red yellow and blue
what re two strengths of using pet scans
- shows brain in action. Can be used to show effects of recreational drugs on neurotransmitters, like dopamine. Showing how biological activity can be linked to behaviour
- indicate specific areas in brain involved with experience. Localisation of function. When doing an activity, the areas in the brain linked will show up
what are two weaknesses of using pet scans
- results not easy to interpret. People doing the same task have shown different brain activities. Difficult to draw conclusions about what is linked
- Ethical issues using tracer. The radioactive substances cause damage to tissues of body or may kill cells. Can only be used once every 6 months for an individual
