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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What are experiments AO1

A
  • one variable is manipulated and its effect is measured
  • determine cause and effect
  • DV and IV manipulated
  • field and lab experiments eg Steyvers and Hemmer or assessing reading ability in a classroom
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2
Q

field experiments strengths and weaknesses

A
  • ecological validity
  • if covert, less demand characteristics
  • extraneous variables reduce reliability
  • consent if covert
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3
Q

lab experiments strengths and weaknesses

A
  • more reliable
  • ensures causality - validity
  • lack ecological validity
  • often volunteer sample - demand characteristics
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4
Q

independent groups design strengths and weaknesses

A
  • less likely to develop practise or fatigue effects if only doing one condition
  • recruiting twice as many people - individual differences between groups
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5
Q

repeated measures design strength and weakness

A
  • individual differences are reduced
  • more likely to guess the aim and so show demand characteristics
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6
Q

matched pair design strength and weakness

A
  • allow the groups to be compared fairly on relevant factors - reliable
  • may not be possible to perfectly match ppts on all relevant factors
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7
Q

what are order effects and how can they be avoided

A
  • performance of one condition is influenced by completing the previous condition - practise or fatigue effects
  • avoided by counterbalancing, randomisation or leaving a time gap
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8
Q

what are extraneous variables and name 2 types

A

factors that may end up having an undesirable effect on the variable being measured, eg participant and situational variables

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9
Q

what are confounding variables

A

when EVs are not controlled and therefore have an effect on the DV , reducing the internal validity of the results

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10
Q

what are ppt variables and give an example

A

where ppts themselves affect the study results, for example if a ppt has a photographic memory and skews the results of a memory test

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11
Q

what are situational variables and give an example

A

environmental variables that may affect the results of the study for example the noise in the room while in a memory test

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12
Q

what is objectivity

A

the need to be impartial or judgement free regarding the analysis of results of a study, avoiding personal opinion.

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13
Q

what is subjectivity

A

the need to base a judgement on personal opinions, feelings or experience

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14
Q

what is reliability

A

the consistency of findings from research determines the reliability of the results

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15
Q

case studies AO1

A
  • carried out on unique cases eg HM who was unable to make new long-term memories due to brain surgery to reduce his epilepsy
  • aim is to see how brain damage affects cognitive function eg memory or perception
  • used when unable to use experiments
  • data is gathered from lots of sources and is then triangulated
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16
Q

case studies AO3

A
  • hard to generalise
  • lots of different methods make it reliable
  • provides a full picture - valid
  • researcher bias - get to know person
    ethics dodge bc brain funny person cant give full consent all the time
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17
Q

2 strengths and weaknesses of using the mean

A
  • sensitive and powerful measure as all scores used
  • extremities are included - representative
  • extremities may skew the results
  • may not be an actual score eg 0.5 of a word cant be recalled
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18
Q

2 strengths and weaknesses of using the median

A
  • not affected by extreme scores
  • easy to work out
  • not useful in a small group of numbers - inaccurate representation
  • large sample of numbers will take a long time to work out
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19
Q

2 strengths and weaknesses of using the mode

A
  • easy to calculate
  • can be used on non-numerical data
  • more than 2 modes makes it meaningless
  • only takes into account common scores - unrepresentative
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20
Q

a strength and weakness of using standard deviation

A
  • uses all scores to accurately measure dispersion, showing normal and skewed distributions
  • hard to calculate manually
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21
Q

MODE IS ON THE LEFT, MODE IS ON THE LEFT, MODE IS ON THE LEFT, THAT’S A….

A

positive skew

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22
Q

difference between ordinal, interval and ratio data

A
  • ordinal data can be ordered, the gap between values has no value
  • interval data gaps have meaning, 0 has value eg temperature 0 degrees
  • ratio data gaps have meaning, 0 has no value eg 0 seconds is nothing
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23
Q

if its a repeated measures design, the stat test will be ….

A

the wilcoxon
- experiment, repeated measures, at least ordinal data

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24
Q

if its an independent group design, the stat test will be …

A

chi square if nominal data or mann whitney if ordinal data, spearmans rho if its a corrolation

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25
Q

corrolation AO1

A
  • looks for a relationship between two variables
  • data gathered via self-report measures
  • use the same ppt for two measures eg aggression levels and TV consumption
  • two variables are of equal importance
  • positive/ negative correlation
  • coefficients show strength - +1 perfect pos correlation, -1 perfect neg corrolation
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26
Q

corrolations AO3

A
  • can do unethical ones eg smoking/ lung cancer
  • easy to see if there’s a relationship via scattergraph
  • cant imply causation
  • could be an extraneous variable instead
  • self-report data
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27
Q

What’s the difference between a type 1 and 2 error?

A

type 1 = too lenient
Type 2 = too harsh

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28
Q

CAT scans AO1

A
  • x-rays take b/w images of the brain
  • person lies on a bed that moves through the gantry
  • images can be compiled to form 3d image
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29
Q

PET scans AO1

A
  • functional images of the brain in colour
  • radio-active glucose tracer injected into the blood
  • tracer will be most visible in areas that use lots of glucose for the continuous performance task
30
Q

FMRI scans AO1

A
  • focuses on blood flow
  • see which areas are more active - functional image
  • 3D image
31
Q

CAT scans AO3

A
  • shows structural changes, showing structural anomalies eg an engorged amygdala or a tumour
  • only black and white images - may be difficult to spot subtle abnormalities or functional changes
32
Q

PET scans AO3

A
  • shows functional changes unlike CAT scans
  • invasive and task validity can be poor
33
Q

FMRI scans AO3

A
  • non-invasive unlike PET scans
  • controlled setting therefore brain function may not show accurate daily brain functioning eg if amygdala triggers fight/flight.
34
Q

Adoption/ Twin study AO1

A

Ludeke et al:
- testing the traditional moral values triad
- Minnesota twin reared apart register 66 MZ, 53 DZ mostly white middle class
- took part in 5 tests eg conservatism and religious fundamentalism scales, corrections made for age, sex and IQ
- found only conservatism link between DZ, all measures MZ
- RWA, rel fund. and conservatism all one trait
- genetics influenced 44% variance in ppts.

35
Q

Explain what 3 of the tests in Ludeke et al were and what they measured:

A
  • right wing authoritarianism - how authoritarian you are
  • conservatism - wilson Patterson scale to measure ideas on abortion, capitalism and segregation
  • religious fundamentalism- 12 true false questions about Christian beliefs
  • traditionalism - stuff from the multi-dimensional personality questionnaire
  • intelligence - verbal and performance intelligence
36
Q

Adoption study AO3

A
  • all from minesota and white
  • same sets of questions - reliable
  • questionnaires not equal to practical beliefs eg abortion
  • PFH because all ppts knew they had a twin
37
Q

observations AO1

A
  • when behaviour is watched and recorded eg via tally chart or video
  • naturalistic/ structured
  • ppt/ non-ppt
  • overt/covert
  • event sampling or time sampling- note every time a behaviour happens/ deciding a length of tie eg 10 minutes and note how many times the behaviour takes place
38
Q

Observations AO3

A
  • naturalistic and covert methods preserve ecological validity and reduce demand characteristics
  • overt is better for ethics as can give informed consent and no need for deception
  • time sampling may not be valid because may miss behaviour if not shown in a specific time period eg child may stab teacher after 5 minutes observation
  • do not tell us about cause and effect, can only describe what behaviour occurs
39
Q

content analysis AO1

A
  • looks at the presence of certain words or themes in media
  • categories agreed on beforehand
  • clear definitions are given to each category eg what constitutes verbal or physical aggression
  • tally of prevalence of words/ themes
  • quantitative data collected
40
Q

Content analysis AO3

A
  • not many ethical issues because sources are public domain
  • can be easily replicated as the source is available to the public
  • subjective - what certain words mean
  • interrater reliability if two researchers cannot agree on a definition
41
Q

Name 3 requirements from the animals procedures act:

A
  • endangered animals cannot be used unless the secretary of state
  • should avoid using animals where possible and limit pain
  • animals cannot be used in multiple studies if the new study is more painful than the last
  • animals should be humanely killed at the end if they will suffer adverse effects because of the study
42
Q

practical issues of using animals for/ against

A
  • biologically similar to humans physiologically
  • better controlled than with humans so more reliable
  • shorter gestation period so can study generational effects
  • generalisability is bad
  • cost of buying approved animals can be quite high
  • danger - some animals may bite or scratch researchers, dangerous
  • controls are not seen in a natural scenario so less valid outside of a lab
43
Q

ethical issues of using animals for/ against

A
  • can carry out unethical experiments eg shocking rats
  • very strict home office guidelines so well protected
  • animals caused some distress - may affect behaviour
  • may cause permanent damage considering the knowledge gained might not be justifiable
44
Q

BPS ethics on animal rights in experiments

A
  • should use alternatives where possible
  • an appropriate species should be used
  • ## caging should be appropriate eg social animals should have company, should have enough space
45
Q

name 3 aspects of the HCPC guidelines that clinical practitioners should follow

A
  • promote and protect the interest of clients
  • only working within your limits of knowledge and skill
  • respect confidentiality
  • keep records of your work
46
Q

describe primary data in clinical psychology

A
  • colected by a researcher for use in a current study
    -eg Rosenhan
  • need to plan how they are going to gather data
  • need to plan how they will record it
47
Q

describe secondary data in clinical psychology

A
  • data has been collected by another researcher - “second hand”
  • often used to review previous studies eg Carlsson
  • can use government statistics
48
Q

AO3 of primary data in clinical psychology

A
  • authentic as comes from ppts themselves so can check for validity or follow up if necessary
  • primary data is up to date, whereas older research may be irrelevant
  • takes more time and cost than using other peoples research
  • may be hard to find a big enough sample
49
Q

AO3 of secondary data in clinical psychology

A
  • increased diversity in sample
  • can be gathered more quickly than primary data
  • may use older classification systems so irrelevant data
  • cannot ensure validity and reliability which will affect conclusions drawn
50
Q

longitudinal studies AO1

A
  • extended period of time
  • measures developmental or time-based changes
  • collects data in a lot of different ways - Beck’s depression inventory or GAF scale,
  • uses the same measures at different points in the study
  • collects qualitative data as well as quantitative
  • eg how many or what symptoms present when
51
Q

strengths and weaknesses of longitudinal studies

A
  • no issue with individual differences because ppt variables are controlled
  • effectively shows the effect of time on a disorder or treatment
  • more likely ppts will drop out or die in a longit. study so validity reduces
  • data may be irrelevant by the time the study is published
  • ethics - RTW reduced, bias may skew results in longer studies
52
Q

cross-sectional studies AO1

A
  • snapshot of behaviour
  • large group of ppts - good cross section of the TP
  • completing a questionnaire or an interview but with loads of different age ranges
53
Q

Cross sectional AO3

A
  • quicker than longitudinal therefore more cost effective
  • findings can be acted on a lot quicker because conclusions can be reached quicker
  • individual differences likely to significantly impact research findings cohort effect - where your culture dictates your beliefs eg old people wont want to bother the doctor
  • aetiological validity is poor because cannot establish a cause of the disorder since no historical data is collected
54
Q

cross-cultural designs

A
  • take samples from different cultural groups to see how culture may impact beliefs/behaviour
  • whether SZ is experienced the same in all cultural groups or whether it is different
55
Q

cross-cultural design AO3

A
  • allows for an understanding of how culture affects diagnosis and what is just down to genetics and what is not
  • allows us to see if the ICD/DSM are accurate globally, or just in western culture.
  • unlikely to know the cultures in enough depth to understand whether it is a culture-bound syndrome or not - may overlook important cultural differences
  • translation can be an issue to try and get both literal meaning and cultural meaning to be perfectly equivalent
56
Q

meta-analysis AO1

A
  • looks at secondary data from lots of studies
  • used when research findings are inconsistent
  • researchers look for a diverse sample of studies
  • may consider a specific time period eg last 10 years
  • often used to examine the effectiveness of a treatment
57
Q

Meta-analysis AO3

A
  • able to use a massive sample cheaply and quickly rather than having to compile it yourself
  • no ethical concerns because using secondary data rather than doing it first-hand- may have sometimes been a hindrance eg sensitive topics
  • may be undisclosed reliability or validity issues
  • may be time bound eg from 20 years ago - could be a cohort effect
58
Q

Case studies AO1 CLINICAL psychology

A
  • idiographic approach - focusing on the detail of a topic and on individuals
  • often longitudinal in nature
  • ## can use primary and secondary data and may test the intra-rater reliability of the diagnosis
59
Q

case studies AO3

A
  • can provide predictive validity of a diagnosis due to being longitudinal
  • rich data used increases validity
  • able to triangulate data - reliable
  • ethics - may feel like they cannot withdraw after a long time
  • generalisability is bad because its only one person or a small group
  • study’s results may be irrelevant in applicability because of how long it takes to carry out case studies.
60
Q

example of case study in clinical psychology:

A

Bradshaw et al with Carol - 26 year old with SZ
- went through CBT over the course of 3 years
- Lots of long walks and talked about stuff they had in common
- saw an improvement psychosocial functioning and was never rehospitalised.

61
Q

interviews in clinical

A
  • structured
    -semi-structured
  • unstructured
  • SCID - standardised diagnostic interview
62
Q

Interviews AO3 clinical

A
  • valid - ppts own words
  • can be recorded - reliable
  • subjectivity - semi and unstructured
  • interviewer bias - ppts may not feel comfortable etc validity
63
Q

example of a use of interviews in clinical psychology

A

Brown et al:
- aim - do stressful life events cause depression?
- 395 women from Islington
- initial interview then a follow up
found those with support less likely to become depressed

64
Q

The differences between grounded theory and thematic analysis:

A
  • grounded theory is a methodology, TA is just a way of analysing data
  • grounded theory has a standardised procedure, TA is largely flexible with a few key points
  • grounded theory develops a theory or model, TA just analyses data
  • Grounded theory is a lot more difficult than TA, which is beginner-friendly
65
Q

key terms in grounded theory

A
  • developped by glaser and strauss
  • memoing- adding comments to the data
  • theoretical sampling - refines categories
    integration - putting it into a theory/model
66
Q

strengths and weaknesses of grounded theory

A
  • good for explaining phenomena without a pre-existing theory, provides a good way to come up with new theories
  • systematic approach with a specific procedure to follow
  • takes a long time and is complex
  • can increase the chance of researcher bias as needs to be interpreted.
67
Q

Purpose of the peer review process

A

Ensure all studies published are valid and unbiased and stops irrelevant or opinionated articles being published

68
Q

name 3 things peer review takes into account

A
  • who funded the research
  • if the study has been replicated
  • if the sample is appropriate
  • if the study design is appropriate
    feedback is then given to the author
69
Q

strengths and weaknesses of peer review

A
  • reviewers have in-depth knowledge of the subject
  • using blind/ double blind procedure validity ^^ because the author cant bias the feedback
  • long, slow process
  • reviewers may be more critical if they disagree with the research.
70
Q

what is the structure of a psychology research paper?

A
  • abstract
  • introduction and literature review
  • methodology
  • results
  • discussion
  • references
71
Q

how do you calculate a spearmans rho

A

psychology (5 decks)

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