Research Methods

Question 1

Descriptive Research

Answer 1

-Data collection tries not to interfere with how data arises in the real world
-Describes the characteristics of a population or a phenomenon
-Includes naturalistic observation, surveys, case studies, and self-reports

Question 2

Correlational Research

Answer 2

-Looks for relationships between variables
-Uses descriptive research methods to obtain data on variables

Question 3

Experimental Research

Answer 3

Manipulates variables in a controlled manner to isolate causes of some phenomena

Question 4

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 4

-Recording behaviour in real world settings without trying to manipulate the situation
-Have high external validity
-Cannot make casual inferences
-Observation can affect behaviour (reactivity)

Question 5

External Validity

Answer 5

The extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

Question 6

Case Studies

Answer 6

-A research design that examines a person/people in depth over an extended period of time
-Useful for existential proof (demonstration that a psychological phenomena can occur)
-Provides information about rare phenomena that cannot be studied in the lab
-Very subjective
-Cannot explain the causation of a phenomena
-Relies on indirect statements (prone to biases and inaccuracies)

Question 7

Anecdote

Answer 7

A short, often interesting personal experience
ie. “I knew a woman who did yoga daily for three weeks and hasn’t experienced depression since!”
-Does not explain causation of phenomena
-Inaccurate/biased portrayal of events
-May not represent other aspects that come into play
-May ignore contradictory claims
-NOT evidence

Question 8

Surveys/Self-Reports

Answer 8

-Using questionnaires or interviews to gather information about aspects of a participant’s background, experiences, and behaviour

pros:
-easy to collect large amounts of data on numerous topics/factors

cons:
-does not establish causation between variables
-wording of the questions can influence responses
-assumes that the participant understands the question
-assumes that the participant has insight into their personality characteristics and are reporting it honestly
-positive impression management: tendency to make oneself appear better than they actually are
-malingering: tendency to make oneself psychologically disturbed to achieve some goal

Question 9

Random Sampling

Answer 9

-Ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate
-Required for generalizable results in any form of research

Question 10

Reliability

Answer 10

The consistency of measurement
Test-retest reliability: when a test/measure is re-administered, it should produce the same result as when it was administered the first time
Interobserver reliability: multiple people using the same test/measure should yield the same conclusion

Question 11

Validity

Answer 11

The extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure

Question 12

Correlational Designs

Answer 12

-Used to examine the relationships between variables
-Relies on the correlation coefficient (the degree to which two variables are related)
Scatter plots: each point is a specific pair of data (ie. x-coordinate is the variable making the prediction and y-coordinate is the variable we want to predict)

Positive correlation (ie. taller fathers predict taller sons)
r=0 —> no correlation r=1—> perfect correlation

Negative correlation (ie. taller fathers predict shorter sons)
r=0—> no correlation r=-1—> perfect correlation

Question 13

Illusory Correlation

Answer 13

Perception of a statistical association between two variables where none actually exists

Question 14

Confirmation Bias

Answer 14

The tendency to seek out information that supports a hypothesis while denying, ignoring, or distorting information that contradicts the hypothesis

Question 15

Availability Heuristic

Answer 15

When you estimate the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease which it comes to mind

Question 16

The Third Variable Problem

Answer 16

Correlation DOES NOT EQUAL Causation
-Two variables may be correlated to one another only because they are both casually related to a third variable

Question 17

Observational Study

Answer 17

Independent variable is not under the control of the researcher

Question 18

Experimental Study

Answer 18

Independent variable is under the control of the researcher

Question 19

Hazards in experimental design

Answer 19

Random assignment is NOT used
-random assignment refers to randomly sorting subjects into experiment groups

Confounding variable(s) present
-a confounding variable refers to differences between the experimental and control groups (those that are not the independent/manipulated variable)
-makes it impossible to determine whether the group differences were due to manipulation or the presence of a confound

Blinding
-subjects are NOT blinded to the condition they are in
-blinding is when a subject is unaware of what group (experimental or control) they are in
-double blinding: neither the researchers or subjects know who is in each group

Experimenter expectancy effect
-when the experimenters hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of the study

Subjects are using demand characteristics
-demand characteristics are cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher’s hypotheses
-may be done to try to disguise the purpose of the study

Question 20

Placebo and Nocebo effect

Answer 20

Placebo
-an inert substance that provokes perceived benefits
-If a person has an expectation that a (fake) medication will be beneficial, their body will be more likely to react in ways that are consistent with an improvement of some kind

Nocebo
-an inert substance causes perceived harm
-if a person has an expectation that the (fake) medication will produce some adverse effect, their body will respond accordingly and be more likely to produce adverse symptoms