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Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Repeated measures

A

All groups doing the same conditions

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2
Q

Counter balancing

A

Taking the whole sample and splitting it in half. First half does condition A then B. Second half does condition B then A

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3
Q

Advantage of counter balancing

A

Used to overcome order effects by spreading them equally across conditions

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4
Q

Independent groups

A

When participants split into two groups and do 1 condition

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5
Q

Matched pairs

A

Recruit group of ppts, but find out what sort of people are in your group then match them one for one on key characteristics. Requires pretest

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6
Q

Hypotheses

A

Prediction based on previous research or theory

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7
Q

Alternate hypotheses

A

One that predicts the IV will have an impact on the DV

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8
Q

IV

A

The thing that changes

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9
Q

DV

A

The thing your measuring. EG happiness score

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10
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

When you know what direction the IV will affect the DV based on previous research

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11
Q

Non-directional hypotheses

A

When you think the IV will affect the DV but you are not sure which direction. Used when there is no previous research

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12
Q

Null hypotheses

A

Predicts the IV Will have no effect on the DV

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13
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Watching someone in a natural environment eg at work

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14
Q

Overt

A

When someone is aware they are being watched and can see the observer

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15
Q

Covert

A

When someone isn’t aware they are being watched being under cover. More chance of naturalistic and valid behaviour

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16
Q

Controlled observation

A

OBservations that take place in a controlled environment eg a lab

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17
Q

Participant observation

A

When observer is part of the group they are observing usually done covertly undercover cop

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18
Q

Structured observations

A

When you know what behaviours you are going to observing before observing them

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19
Q

Unstructured observations

A

When you have no idea what behaviours you will observe as you dont know what behaviours will come up. Eg observing people at a nudist beach

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20
Q

Target population

A

Total group of participants from which a sample may be drawn

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21
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Asking people around you that are willing to take part. Biased

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22
Q

Volunteer sampling

A

When an individual comes forward to take part in your study after seeing a form of advertisement, physical media or social media. Biased

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23
Q

Random sampling

A

Write all names of the target population onto seperate pieces of paper and put them all in a hat. Pick out names in relation to sample size and then ask if those picked out want to be a part of the study.
Not biased

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24
Q

Systematic sampling

A

Get a full list of the target population and then using a nth number to pick out the sample. Eg rolling a dice and getting a 5 and then using every 5th name

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25
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Researcher will find stratas of a target population. Eg 16 year olds, 17 year olds, 18 year olds

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26
Q

Strata

A

Classes within society

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27
Q

Time sampling

A

When an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals. EG every 30 seconds

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27
Q

Inferential stats left collumn

A

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval

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28
Q

Inferential stats rhyme

A

Chinese song
Man will sing
Under rainbow peagasus

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29
Q

Extraneous variable

A

Factors that are not the IV but could still affect the DV

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30
Q

Confounding variable

A

Variables that are something to do with the study that is not the IV but could have an affect on the DV

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31
Q

Standard deviation

A

A single numerical value which shows on average how far away people were from the mean. If higher number the more spread out the data and higher standard deviation will be

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32
Q

Inter- rate reliability

A

Reliability between observers results needs consistency of 80%

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33
Q

Random allocation

A

Splitting a sample into two or more groups but giving equal chance to all ppts in being in either group

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34
Q

Standardisation

A

Keeping everything the same for all participants. Same ethical treatment, instructions and environment

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35
Q

Randomisation

A

Give everybody the same set of questions but in a random order to spread order effects evenly

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36
Q

Percentage increase/ Decrease

A

Find difference between scores and divide by original score

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37
Q

Laboratory experiment

A

An experiment carried out in a controlled environment

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38
Q

Field experiment

A

An experiment carried out in a natural environment

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39
Q

Natural experiment

A

An experiment where the experimenter does not directly control the IV

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40
Q

Quasi experiment

A

an experiment where the experimenter does not directly control the IV and the IV is naturally occuring

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41
Q

Ecological validity

A

The extent to which a situation reflects real life

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42
Q

Internal validity

A

The extent to which the IV has affected the DV linked to lab studies that control extraneous and confounding variables

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43
Q

External validity

A

The extent to which the study represents the outside world and how much it can be applied to it

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44
Q

Face validity

A

On the face of it does it look like it measures what its meant to measure

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45
Q

Concurrent validity

A

The extent to which a new measures score correlates with the measure of an existing score

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46
Q

Temporal validity

A

The generalisability of a studys results across time

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47
Q

Peer reviews

A

Evaluation of work
Keeps research honest and suggests
improvements
Ensures psychology continues to be scientific
Checks for sound methodology and no plagiarism

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48
Q

type 1 error

A

This is when you accept your experimental hypothesis when you should have rejected it as the results were affected by random variables

49
Q

type 2 error

A

You accepted your null hypothesis when you should have rejected it,due to you thinking there was no significance between variables

50
Q

Nominal data

A

Data that can be put into categories

51
Q

Ordinal data

A

Data can be ordered

52
Q

Interval

A

Data can be measured with equal sets of intervals

53
Q

Open questions

A

Allow depth and detail and qualitative data lots of info received

54
Q

Closed questions

A

Info easily collected and can be compared with others easily

55
Q

Investigator effect

A

When the person collecting the research has knowledge of what the aim of the research is

56
Q

One tailed

A

Based on previous research

57
Q

Two tailed

A

No previous research

58
Q

What does the researcher need to do when conducting a self-report

A

-Avoid complex terminology: ppts may not understand or by too embarrassed to say they don’t, this can then result in inaccurate responses

-Rewording questions: when a ppts doesn’t understand a skilled interviewer could reword it in way that doesn’t change the meaning of the question

-Double barrled questions: ppts may agree with one part of the question but not the other, makes the question confusing

Leading questions: this can bias responses in a certain direction, to avoid this questions should be written in a way that doesn’t suggest a correct way

59
Q

how to test self reports

A

do a pilot study
Small scale study before the actual study to see any improvements that can be made

60
Q

Filler questions in self reports

A

Used in questionnaires to stop ppts from finding out the aim

61
Q

Structured interview

A

interview with a list of prepared questions

62
Q

Unstructured interview

A

No setlist of questions so its an open conversation about the topic

63
Q

What is a demand characteristics

A

when ppts guess the aim of experiment and this creates a pressure from them to respond in a certain way
-this means your measuring effect on demand characterises not the effect of the IV or DV

64
Q

What is a meta-analysis

A

-a statistical technique used to gather data from lots of studies on the same topic and combine them to see the overall effect

65
Q

What is meant by a case study

A

A case study is an in-depth study of one person or a group of people over time.
usually carried out in the real world and involves a rare event.
Produce mostly qualitative data

66
Q

What is a co-variable

A

Two factors that are compared to each other

67
Q

How is correlational data presented

A

Scattergram

68
Q

What are the types of correlations

A

Positive: co-variables increases with the other co-variable

Negative: as one co variables increases the other co variable decreases

Zero: no relationships between co variables

69
Q

What does the correlation co-effiecent show us

A

shows us the strength and direction of the relationship between co-variables as a number between -1 and +1

If its higher than 0.8 it has a strong positive correlation
lower than -0.8 has a strong negative correlation

70
Q

Ethical guidelines

A

Informed consent: ppts must be told about research before taking part

Deception: shouldn’t lie to ppts

protection from harm: ppts should not be exposed to psychological/physical harm more than expected in day to day life

right to withdraw: pts can lave tsudy at any yime and can withdraw data later

Confiedentiality: keep personal infomation of ppts out of publications

privacy: ppts should not obserbed unless its public

71
Q

Features of psychology as a science

A
  • Its predictions can be falsified
  • It has a paradigm
  • Collects data by empirical methods
  • Tries to determine causes of why things happen
  • Its objective
  • Its replicable
72
Q

How is a psychological report laid out

A

Abstarct: summary of 150 words of aims, hypothesis, method, findings etc

Introudction: general overview of areas studied, includes existing theories Aims and hypothesis, state the purpose of the study and talk about the IV and DV

Method: how the research was carried out Design: Research,method, design, any problems with design, external variables and how they were controlled, ethical issues, any materials, demographics, sampling, how data was collected etc

Results: includes descriptive stats (graphs), central tendencies and inferential stats, talks about significance level

Discussion: summary of results which relates aims and hypothesis, implications of study, consideration of methodology, suggestions for future research

References

73
Q

Abstract

A

summary of 150 words of aims, hypothesis, method, findings etc

74
Q

Method

A

how the research was carried out Research, method, design, any problems with design, external variables and how they were controlled, ethical issues, any materials, demographics, sampling, how data was collected etc

75
Q

Results

A

includes raw data found in the study including descriptive stats (graphs), central tendencies and inferential stats, talks about significance level

76
Q

Discussion

A

Summary of results which does the following:
1. Outlining why you found what you found
2. Correlating findings to studies outlined in introduction.
3. Identify potential weaknesses in your study
4. Identify future directions of research in context of what you found

77
Q

Referencing a journal

A
  • Surname
  • First initial
  • (YEAR)
  • Title of Article
  • Title of Journal
  • Volume number
  • Page numbers
78
Q

Pros and Cons of case studies

A
  • Sometimes behaviour is so rare it is limited to few people in the world
  • Rich detail case studies provide
  • Not representative as results cant be generalised to everyone
  • Researcher bias. Researcher may feel very passionate about the area they research
79
Q

Content analysis

A

Involves quantifying qualitative data through coding units. and turning qualitative data into quantitative data.
Ways to quantify qualitative data
- Words
- Themes
- Characters

80
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

Repeat the test after a significant period of time and compare the results of the two separate tests
Researchers could calculate the correlation between the two ratings. Researchers generally accept 0.8 correlation between the test and re-test

81
Q

Pros and cons of Content Analysis

A
  • Very easy to perform and cheap
  • Complements other methods to add validity to results
  • Flawed results that may not be able to be applied to society
  • Turns qualitative data into quantitative data so we only find out what but not why
82
Q

Thematic Analysis

A

Identifying trends within the data and slowly adjusting trends as you get further into the data set.
Involves analysing every word in a qualitative piece of data and arranging them into these changing themes.
Dataset needs to be read several times to slowly become immersed in data

83
Q

6 Phases of thematic analysis

A
  1. Familiarisation with the data
  2. Coding
  3. Searching for themes
  4. Reviewing themes
  5. Defining and naming themes
  6. Writing up
84
Q

Familiarisation with the data

A

Involves intensely reading the data and becoming immersed in the data

85
Q

Coding

A

Involves generating codes/labels that identify features of the data important to answering the research question

86
Q

Searching for themes

A

Involves examining the codes/labels and determining if there are themes within the dataset

87
Q

Reviewing themes

A

Checking the potential themes against the data. Themes are refined with the researcher sometimes splitting or discarding one

88
Q

Defining and naming themes

A

Detailed analysis of each theme and creating a name that encapsulates the theme

89
Q

Writing up

A

Involves combining together the information to write up the research

90
Q

Evaluation of Thematic analysis

A
  • Tends to be subjective as researchers use subjective judgements to gather the codes
  • As a result of this subjectivity thematic analysis tends to be unreliable. A researcher who replicates it will find different results
  • A thorough and labour-intensive method of research
91
Q

Low correlations

A

-0.3 = low negative correlation
-0.8 = highly negative correlation
-1 = perfect negative correlation

92
Q

High correlations

A

0.3 = low positive correlation
0.8 = highly positive correlation
1 = perfect positive correlation

93
Q

Alternative Hypothesis for correlation

A

There will be a significant negative relationship between the heat of sun (measured in degrees Celsius) and clothing (measured by number of clothing items worn)

94
Q

Correlational hypothesis

A

Must be operationalised
There will be a negative/positive/neutral relationship between two co-variables

95
Q

Improving validity in experiments

A
  • Having a control group as well as the experimental group
    -Standardising the procedure for all groups
  • Using single and double blind designs in the study
96
Q

Improving validity for observations

A
  • Covert observations improve validity as you would not act unnaturally if you were not aware you were being watched
97
Q

Primary Data

A

Data collected by researchers directly from the participants first hand

  • Tends to be more objective
  • Cost and time spent in recruiting participants
98
Q

Secondary Data

A

When researchers use data from studies that have already been completed, so the researchers do not have their own participants.

  • Not expensive as you only have to read other peoples research
  • May be outdated or irrelevant if research was conducted more than 5 years before
99
Q

Negatively skewed distribution

A

If values are less than the mode its NEGATIVELY skewed

100
Q

Positively skewed distributions

A

If values are greater than the mode its POSITIVELY skewed

101
Q

Positive distributions

A

Skewed to the left meaning the scores that people have been measured on are generally low.
Experiencing floor effect

102
Q

Floor effect

A

Scores are bunching up around the lower end of the scale

103
Q

Negative distributions

A

When people are generally scoring high in what they are being measured in. With the mode on the right hand side it means people did well
Experiencing ceiling effect

104
Q

Ceiling effect

A

The very few people who scored poorly on this test are bringing the mean down, but median and mode are generally unaffected as they don’t take into account outlier scores

105
Q

Likert or rating scale questions

A

These questions measure the strength of opinion
Strongly agree———————–Strongly disagree

106
Q

Types of Self reports

A

Questionnaires - written form of self report
Interviews - oral type of self report

107
Q

3 types of questions in self report

A
  1. Open questions
  2. Closed questions
  3. Likert or Rating scale questons
108
Q

Pros and cons of self report

A
  • Can produce numerical data that can be analysed using statistical methods
  • Can collect large quantities of data quickly
  • Measures are usually standardised and easily reproduced
  • Interviewing can be time-consuming and is not normally conducted on large samples
  • Not possible to gauge whether ppts are telling the truth
109
Q

Process of peer reviewing

A
  • Independent researchers in the field (usually 3) will receive a copy of the manuscript
  • Validity, significance and originality of the work is considered
  • Reviewers can accept the manuscript as it is or accept it on the basis of changes being made
  • They can also reject it outright from being published
  • Editor of the journal has the final call on the manuscript
110
Q

Referencing a book

A

Surname
First initials
(YEAR)
Book title
Publisher location
Publisher

111
Q

Falsifiability

A

A theory should be able to be tested and therefore disproved

112
Q

Paradigm

A

A set of shared beliefs about the fundamentals in a specific field.
eg biologists believing in the existence of DNA as the building block of life

113
Q

Empiricism

A

If it is able to be observed or not

114
Q

Determinism

A

There should be an identifiable cause or causes for an event that happens

115
Q

Objectivity

A

A science should attempt to report things as they are. Subjective views have no place

116
Q

Replicability

A

Using methods that can be repeated is necessary in order to accept the findings from a study

117
Q

Kuhn (1962)

A

Argued that a science must have a uniting paradigm
Psychology lacks this, kuhn argues psychology is therefore a prescience as it hasn’t yet developed this paradigm

118
Q

BPS code of ethics

A
  1. respect
  2. commitment
  3. integrity
  4. responsibility
119
Q

Bar charts

A

Used in experiments and when looking and secrete categories (Seperate)
Bars dont touch

120
Q

Histograms

A

Not discrete categories
Bars touching

Paper 2 Psychology (3 decks)

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