Research Methods

Question 1

Hypothesis

Answer 1

A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is falsifiable.

Question 2

Three categories of research methods?

Answer 2

descriptive, correlational, and experimental research.

Question 3

descriptive research

Answer 3

The goal of descriptive research is to simply describe or measure the variables that you are interested in (e.g., the level of gratitude and happiness in our PSYC 130 class).

Question 4

Variable

Answer 4

any characteristic (e.g., eye color, personality trait, willingness to help in an emergency) or condition (e.g., time of day, temperature) that can change or take on different values.

Question 5

Three types of descriptive Research

Answer 5

• Observational research.
• Case studies.
• Surveys.

Question 6

Naturalistic observational studies

Answer 6

• Observations take place in a natural setting (i.e., a setting that has not been structured by the researchers).
• Allows you to observe behavior as it occurs naturally.
• Time consuming. Researchers must wait for the behavior they are interested in to occur naturally.

Question 7

Structured observational studies

Answer 7

The setting is structured by the researchers with the intention of eliciting the behavior of interest. - Structured observational studies can take place in the lab or in real-world settings.
- Major advantage of not having to wait for the behavior of interest to occur naturally.
- Disadvantage is that thebehavior of interest may be less natural because the environment has been structured by the researchers

Question 8

Participant observational research

Answer 8

• The researchers actively engage and interact with the participants they are observing.
• Allows for observations of behavior that may be impossible to observe otherwise.
• Potentially dangerous and time consuming. - Researcher involvement may influence the behavior of the participants, so it is less natural.

Question 9

Case Studies

Answer 9

In-depth examination of an individual or small group. The goal is acquiring detailed information.

There are many different tools for collecting information in a case study (e.g., observations, psychological tests, surveys, interviews, selfreport measures).

Useful for studying rare cases that do not occur often and are impossible or unethical to manipulate (e.g., H. M’s removal of his hippocampus).

Findings from case studies can be used to generate hypotheses that can then be tested using more people and other research methods.

• Can be used to provide evidence that a psychological phenomenon is possible (i.e., existence proof).

Question 10

Weakness of Case Studies

Answer 10

Weakness of case studies are they are not generalizable. The information uncovered in a case study may not generalize to other people or other situations. In other words, case studies are anecdotal.

Question 11

Surveys and Self-Report Measures

Answer 11

Goal is to describe the attitudes, experiences, beliefs, and behaviors of a population of people.

Allow researchers to describe and measure variables that would be impossible or unethical to observe directly (e.g., frequency of sexual harassment experienced by college students).
Can be an easy and quick way to gather data from many people.

Question 12

Concerns of surveys

Answer 12

Reliance on selfreported data (i.e., data that people report themselves). Assumption is that people are being honest and accurate in their responses. - Social desirability bias (i.e., people may want to be viewed in a positive manner and therefore, adjust their responses to appear more desirable).

Question 13

Self-report psychological measures

Answer 13

are related to surveys because they both rely on self-reported data. A selfreport measure is designed to measure participants on a psychological concept by asking them to respond to questions that are designed to capture that concept (e.g., NPI-40; a self-report measure of narcissism).

Question 14

Correlational Research

Answer 14

The goal of correlational research is to examine and measure the relationships (i.e., association) between variables.

Correlational research involves measuring variables and the association between them (e.g., the relationship between gratitude and happiness scores).

Question 15

the Pearson Product Correlation Coefficient (r).

Answer 15

The extent to which the scores on two variables are associated can be measured statistically

Question 16

A correlation coefficient

Answer 16

provides us with the statistical strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
- Correlation coefficients can range from -1 to +1.

Question 17

• A positive correlation coefficient

Answer 17

indicates that as the scores on one variable changes, the scores on the other variable tend to change in the same direction (e.g., as gratitude scores increase, happiness scores tend to increase as well).

Question 18

negative correlation coefficient

Answer 18

indicates that as the scores on one variable changes, the scores on the other variable tend to change in the opposite direction (e.g., as gratitude scores increase, narcissism scores tend to decrease).

Question 19

correlation does not equal causation.

Answer 19

Remember

Question 20

Experimental Research

Answer 20

Experimental research allows us to determine if there is a causal relationship between variables

Question 21

• The manipulation of an Independent Variable (IV)

Answer 21

The researchers vary the IV across different conditions of the experiment.

Question 22

• The measurement of a Dependent Variable (DV).

Answer 22

The researchers measure the DV across the different conditions of the experiment to determine if changes in the IV caused changes in the DV.

Question 23

• Random Assignment

Answer 23

Every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to the different conditions of the experiment. Random assignment ensures that the pre-existing differences of the participants are spread out evenly across the conditions of the experiment.

Question 24

• Control of potential confounding variables.

Answer 24

Confounds are variables, other than the IV, that differ across the conditions of the experiment, and have the potential to influence the DV. Researchers must eliminate confounds to ensure that any differences found in the DV across the conditions of the experiment can be attributed to the manipulation of the IV and not something else.

Question 25

Selecting Participants

Answer 25

The first step in research

Question 26

your population of interest

Answer 26

the people that you are interested in learning about).

Question 27

From your population of interest, you will select a

Answer 27

sample

Question 28

Random Selection

Answer 28

(i.e., every person in your population of interest has an equal chance of being selected for your sample).

Question 29

uses Convenience
Sampling

Answer 29

(i.e., a sample is simply made up of people who are available and willing to participate).

Question 30

Operational definitions

Answer 30

are the precise ways that conceptual variables are measured or manipulated in a study.

Question 31

Construct Validity

Answer 31

is the extent to which the measures used in a study capture the variables they were designed to capture (e.g., does the NPI-40 really capture a person’s level of narcissism?). Construct validity can also be applied to the manipulations of variables. Do the manipulations in a study truly manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate?

Question 32

Reliability

Answer 32

Reliability is the consistency of a measure. If the same participants are measured multiple times under the same conditions, a reliable measure should produce similar results each time. - For a measure to valid, it must be reliable.
However, a measure can be reliable and not valid.

Question 33

interrater reliability.

Answer 33

Interrater reliability is the level of agreement between measurements made by multiple researchers. When measurements are obtained by direct observation of behaviors, it is common to use two or more separate observers who record measurements.

Question 34

internal validity

Answer 34

is the extent to which a research method allows us to make cause and effect inferences.

Question 35

The biggest threat the internal validity

Answer 35

is potential confounds

Question 36

External validity

Answer 36

is the extent to which the findings of a study generalize to other people, settings, and situations

Question 37

replication

Answer 37

(external validity is achieved through replication) & to identify qualifiers

Replication is repeating a study with different participants, in different settings, or by using different methods. Once the results of a study have been replicated across different circumstances, it can be assumed to have higher external validity.

Question 38

qualifiers

Answer 38

circumstances that alter the findings of a study. Typically, studies that take place in natural, real-world settings, like naturalistic observational studies, are considered more generalizable, and therefore higher in external validity.

Question 39

between-participant design

Answer 39

each participant is only exposed to one condition of the IV and is measured once on the DV.

Question 40

within-participant design

Answer 40

participants are exposed to all the conditions of an experiment and are measured on the DV more than once.

( don’t need to worry about random assignment)

Problems - order effects,
-Fatigue
-Practice effects

Question 41

counterbalancing

Answer 41

must alter the order in which different participants are exposed to the different conditions).

Question 42

experimental conditions.

Answer 42

The different levels of the IV manipulation

Question 43

The placebo effect

Answer 43

The placebo effect occurs when people experience change from the mere expectation of change and not from the treatment/manipulation itself. There is much debate on how the placebo effect works, but it is believed to be
psychosomatic

Question 44

Control group

Answer 44

given a placebo to control for the effect

Question 45

demand characteristics

Answer 45

refers to any features or potential cues of a study that indicate to participants the purpose or predictions of the study

(can cause participants to try and behave in the way that they think the researchers want them to)

Question 46

deception

Answer 46

reduces likelihood of demand characteristics from impacting results

Question 47

experimenter expectancy effect.

Answer 47

Researchers will have expectations and hopes about the results of their study. These expectations can cause researchers to unintentionally influence the results of a
study

Question 48

Double-Blind Study

Answer 48

the participants and the researchers interacting with the participants are blind to which condition the participants have been assigned to.

Question 49

Reactivity

Answer 49

is when a person changes their behavior because they are aware that they are being watched and measured.