Lifespan Development Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
The scientific study of the
change and stability across the
lifespan.
Lifespan perspective
- Important changes take place
at each stage of the lifespan. - Lifespan perspective
challenges the developmental
myth of infantile determinism.
Infantile determinism
- The most important stage of
development is infancy (0 to 2
years).
Studying Development Over the
Life Span.
Two common research methods
used to capture
differences/change across the
lifespan.
- Cross-sectional research
- Longitudinal design.
Cross-sectional research.
Captures differences across
the lifespan. People of different
ages are compared at a single
point in time
.
Cross-sectional research designs
are vulnerable to potential
cohort effects.
Cohort.
A group of people born at
approx. the same time who
share the same historical
experiences (i.e., experienced
the same cultural, economic,
and social conditions).
Cohort Effect.
When differences on a variable
(e.g., happiness) between
different age groups is not the
result of age but the result of
differences in historical
experiences. Cohort effects can
be controlled for using a
longitudinal design.
Longitudinal design.
- Captures change across the
lifespan. A single group of
people are compared at
multiple points in time.
Issues with Longitudinal
designs.
Can take a long time to
complete.
- Risk participant attrition (i.e.,
over time participants leave the
study). This is especially
problematic when the attrition
is selective (i.e., the people who
leave the study are
fundamentally different than
the people who remain). The
selective attrition example we
talked about in class was what if
the people who left our
happiness study were
unhappier than the people who
remained.
- The findings of a longitudinal
design can only be applied to
the specific cohort that was
studied. The findings may not
be relevant to other cohorts.
Cognitive Development.
refers to
changes in mental processes
over time.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Some theories of cognitive development focus on continuous changes. These are
gradual changes in the degree
of a preexisting cognitive skill.
Other theories of cognitive
development focus on
discontinuous change. These
are sudden changes in the types
of cognitive skills a person can
use.
Discontinuous theories of
cognitive development are
considered stage theories (i.e.,
people enter distinct stages of
cognition that are distinguished
by the emergence new
cognitive skills).
- Domain-specific changes vs.
Domain-general changes.
Some
theories of cognitive
development focus on domainspecific changes. This is the idea
that cognitive skills develop
separately from each other at
different times. For example, a
child may experience dramatic
changes in her language skills
but not dramatic changes in her
ability to reason at the same
time. Some theories of cognitive
development focus on domaingeneral changes. This is the idea
that when a person experiences
a developmental shift in
cognition, all their cognitive
skills are changed at approx. the
same time. For example, when
a child experiences a dramatic
change in her language skills,
she also experiences a dramatic
change in her ability to reason.
Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)
Theory of Cognitive
Development.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development is stage theory.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development is a domaingeneral theory.
General ideas of Piaget’s
theory of cognitive
development.
cognitive
schemas
Cognitive schemas are
preexisting knowledge
structures for how the world
works. Children are motivated
to maintain a balance (i.e., equilibrium) between their schemas and their experiences.
There are two ways that they
can achieve this balance:
assimilation and
accommodation.
Assimilation
- A preexisting schema is used
to make sense of a new
experience without changing
the schema. In other words,
new information is assimilated
into a preexisting schema.
Accommodation.
- A preexisting schema is altered
to make sense of a new
experience. In other words, new
information is accommodated
by changing a preexisting
schema.
The four major stages of
Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development.
- Sensorimotor stage (birth to
age 2). - Preoperational stage (age 2
to age 7). - Concrete operational (age 7
to age 11). - Formal operational (final
stage beginning at approx. age
11).
Sensorimotor stage (birth to
age 2).
Children in this stage are
not capable of mental
representations, symbolic
thought, object permanence,
and deferred imitation.
- Object permanence is the
ability to recognize that objects
continue to exist even when
they are no longer visible.
- Deferred imitation is the
ability to imitate an action later.
Preoperational stage (age 2
to age 7)
. Children in this stage
are now capable of mental
representations, symbolic
thought, object permanence,
and deferred imitation.
However, they are still limited
by egocentrism, irreversibility, and centration. Because of their
limitations they are not capable
of conservation.
- Egocentrism refers to the
limited ability to take another
person’s point of view.
- Conservation is the awareness
that physical quantities can
remain the same despite
changes in appearance.
- Irreversibility is the inability to
mentally reverse an action.
- Centration is the tendency to
only focus on one aspect of a
problem or only consider one
variable.
Concrete operational (age 7
to age 11)
Children in this stage
demonstrate reversibility and
decentration. Children in this
stage can think logically about
concrete objects and events
that they have experienced but
are unable to think logically
about abstract ideas or
hypothetical situations.
. Formal operational (final
stage beginning at approx. age
11).
Adolescence can now begin
to think logically about abstract
ideas and hypothetical
situations. In other words,
ideas, and possibilities. They
have now graduated to an adult
mode of thinking. Piaget
believed that cognitive
development continues after
this stage, but it is highlighted
by more continuous growth
rather than discontinuity.
Formal operations:
- Systematic problem solving
(i.e., manipulation of a single
variable at a time to determine
cause and effect).
- Figurative language.
Vygotsky: Sociocultural Theory
- Scaffolding
-The Zone of Proximal
Development
- domain-specific
The Zone of Proximal
Development
is the point at
which a child is ready to benefit
from scaffolding for a specific
skill. In other words, the point
at which they are ready to learn
a new skill with the help from
someone else.
Self-concept
- the totality of the beliefs that
you have about who you are as
a person.
Subjective self
- A precursor to the
development of a self-concept. - The recognition that we are
distinct from other people and
other objects.
Self-recognition.
- Self-recognition is related to
the development of a selfconcept. - The ability to recognize
oneself.
Mirror/Rouge test. (Self Recognition)
A small
mark of rouge is secretly placed
on a child’s face. The child is
then placed in front of a mirror.
If the child touches the red
mark on their own face, this is a demonstration of selfrecognition. The ability to pass
the Mirror/Rouge test typically
emerges around 18 months.
Theory of Mind.
- The ability for children to
recognize that other people can
hold perspectives that differ
from their own - Measured using false-belief
tasks. False-belief tasks vary,
but typically test if a child will
recognize that just because they
know something (e.g., crayons
are inside a box with a picture
of candy on the front of it), this
does not mean that other
people will know it (e.g.,
recognize that other people will
likely assume that there is
candy in the box because of the
picture on the front). Children
typically do not pass false belief
tasks until age 4 or 5.
prenatal period
refers to
the period beginning at
conception and ending at birth.
Conception.
- The joining of a sperm cell
with an egg cell. - Sperm cells and egg cells are
collectively referred to as
gametes.
Zygote.
When a
sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell,
the 23 chromosomes of the
sperm cell pair with the 23
chromosomes of the egg cell.
This pairing creates a single cell
with 23 pairs of chromosomes
(46 chromosomes in total)
The Germinal Stage.
- Last from conception to
implantation (approx. 2 weeks). - During this stage, the one-cell
zygote begins to divide. The
dividing cells of the zygote are
initially undifferentiated (i.e.,
stem cells). They have the
potential to be any type of cell
in the human body. However,
shortly after the zygote begins
dividing, the cells quickly begin
to differentiate and turn into
specific types of cells (e.g.,
some cells differentiate into
neurons, cells of the nervous
system). - By approx. day 5, the zygote
has become a multicellular ball
called a blastocyst. - The blastocyst travels down
the fallopian tube to the uterus
and by day 7 begins implanting
itself in the uterine wall (i.e.,
implantation). - The process of implantation
can take several days, and by
approx. day 14 the blastocyst is
fully implanted in the uterus. - The outer cells of the
blastocyst combine with the cells of the uterine wall to form
the placenta. The placenta will
allow nutrients and oxygen to
pass from the mother to the
child.
The Embryonic Stage.
- Successful implantation begins
the embryonic stage of prenatal
development. - The embryonic stage lasts until
approx. the end of the 8th week. - Organogenesis (i.e., the
development of the vital
organs) occurs during the
embryonic stage. By the end of
the 8th week, the embryo has all
its vital organs and body parts
formed. For example, the
neural tube develops by day 22
and will eventually form the
brain and spinal cord.
The Fetal Stage
- the Fetal stage lasts from the
9
th week till birth. - The fetal stage involves the
growth and refinement of the
organs that were formed during
the embryonic stage. - A fetus goes from weighing 2
grams at 9 weeks to approx.
3400 grams at birth. - Sex organs are formed during
the fetal stage, and the sex of
the fetus can be identified by
week 12.
- Neuronal proliferation (fetal stage)
(the production of new neurons).
Neuronal migration (fetal stage)
(the new
neurons migrate to the different
areas of the brain).
- Synaptogenesis (fetal)
(the migrated
neurons form connections between each other. This allows
for communication between
different brain areas).
- Myelination
(myelin sheath is
formed around the axons of
some neurons. This fatty
coating regulates and speeds up
the communication between
neurons).
Birth.
- At approx. 38 weeks since
conception, the fetal brain
triggers the release of
hormones (e.g., oxytocin) which
prepares the fetus and the
mother for labor
Teratogens
- Any external factor that can
have a negative impact on a
developing embryo or fetus.
The impact a teratogen has
depends on (a) the type of
teratogen and (b) the point of
time during pregnancy the
embryo or fetus was exposed to
it.
Examples of teratogens.
- Diet. Certain nutrients are
essential to proper
development. The example we
discussed in class was Folic Acid
(a B vitamin). Low amounts of
folic acid have been linked to
neural tube defects including
Spina Bifida (a neural tube
defect that results in a lower
portion of the spine not being
enclosed properly).
Drugs
-Thalidomide, no limbs
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum
Disorder (FASD).
This disorder
includes a range of symptoms
that can be experienced when
an embryo or fetus is exposed
to alcohol. Symptoms discussed
in class include impaired
physical growth, smaller than
typical brains, heart problems,
hearing loss, distinct facial features, intellectual
impairments, learning
disabilities, and behavioral
problems.
Attention-Deficit/
Hyperactivity Disorder
“a persistent pattern of
inattention and/or
hyperactivity-impulsivity that
interferes with functioning or
development” (DSM-5, 2013,
p. 59).
Neurodevelopmental
Disorder.
Characteristics of
inattention.
- Inability to attend to details
resulting in careless mistakes
on tasks and schoolwork. - Difficulty maintaining
attention during tasks,
activities, or schoolwork. - Failure to respond when
spoken to. - Unable to complete tasks,
activities, or schoolwork. - Often forgetting things.
- Unable to block out external
stimuli or unrelated thoughts. - Often losing things that are
necessary for a task, activity,
or schoolwork. - Difficulty with organization
and time management. - Avoidance and dislike of
tasks, activities, and
schoolwork that require the
maintenance of mental focus.
Characteristics of
Hyperactivity and
Impulsivity
- Always squirming and
fidgeting. - Unable to remain seated
when required to do so. - Running and climbing in situations where it is not
appropriate. - Unable to remain quiet
during work or play. - Constant talking.
- Unable to wait turn for
things. - Impulsive.
- Interrupting and intruding
on others.
Specifiers of ADHD.
- Combined presentation.
- Predominantly inattentive
presentation. - Predominantly
hyperactivity-impulsivity.
Outcomes associated with
ADHD.
- Decreased school
performance and academic
attainment in children. - Social rejection.
- Increased risk of conduct
disorder in adolescence. - Decreased work
performance and
occupational attainment in
adults. - Increased risk of
unemployment. - Increased risk of antisocial
personality disorder in
adulthood. - Increased risk of substance
abuse disorder. - Increased risk of jail.
- Increased risk of accidental
injury. - Increased risk of
interpersonal conflict
including family conflict.
Conduct Disorder
Defined in the DSM-5 as, “a repetitive and persistent
pattern of behavior in which
the basic rights of others or
major age-appropriate
societal norms or rules are
violated” (DSM-5, p. 460).
- 2% to 10% of children and
adolescence are diagnosed
with Conduct Disorder.
Four symptom categories of
Conduct Disorder.
1. Aggression to people and
animals.
2. Destruction of Property.
3. Deceitfulness or theft.
4. Serious violations of ageappropriate rules.
The specifier, With Limited
Prosocial Emotions, can be
added to a diagnosis of
conduct disorder if an
individual displays at least
two of the following
symptoms.
- Lack of remorse or guilt.
- Callous lack of empathy.
- Unconcerned about
performance. - Shallow or deficient affect.
The above traits have been
referred to as callous and
unemotional traits.
Children with Conduct
Disorder, With Limited
Prosocial Emotions.
- More likely to engage in
proactive aggression.
- Risk for psychopathy in
adulthood.
- More likely to engage in
severe antisocial behavior
earlier in life.
- May be less responsive to
punishment and nurturing.
- More resistant to
treatment.
- Perhaps more genetically
influenced.