Research Methods Flashcards

Question

Sampling methods * ES|TS * What are the two sampling methods used in a structured observation? * Describe the two and when they would be used

Answer 1

* Continuous recoding of behv is a key feature of unstructured observations, all instances of target behv recorded (not practical when complex behvs are being measured) * In structured observations, a systematic way off sampling observations must be used * Event sampling involves counting number of times a particular behv (event) occurs in a target individual or group * For example, event sampling of dissent in a football match would mean counting number of times players disagree with the referee * Time sampling involves recording behv within a pre-established time frame * For example, in a football match we may only be concerned with one player so we use behv categories to see what the individual does every 30 seconds (whatever time frame)

Answer 2

* What are the aims of the study? * What is the hypothesis, is it directional or non-directional? * What is the setting? (Controlled or naturalistic) * What is the observer’s status? (Covert or overt) * What is the observer’s involvement? (Ppt or non-ppt) * What sampling method is being used? (Continuous, time sampling or event sampling) * Is it a structured or unstructured observation? * Has the DV been fully operationalised into behavioural categories? * Has a behavioural checklist been created? * Have ethical issues been considered? * How will results be presented?

Answer 3

* The process of combining the findings from a number of studies with the same research aim * This produces an overall statistical conclusion (effect size) based on a range of studies * Larger and more varied sample created, results can be generalised across much larger populations increasing external validity * Meta-analysis is prone to publication bias (the file drawer problem) * Cherry pick studies in favour of what researcher believes, neglects studies with negative or non-significant results * Conclusions made therefore prone to bias

Answer 4

* General term for any measure of the average value in a set of data * Methods of measuring central tendency include the mean, median and mode (descriptive statistics) * The mean is the most representative due to it including all scores/values in a data set * However, it is easily distorted by extreme values (anomalies), long to calculate * The median is unaffected by extreme values (anomalies) and is easy to calculate if data set is in order * However, it is less representative because it ignores higher and lower numbers, also extreme values may be important * The mode is very easy to calculate but is not representative of the whole data set * May not be a useful piece of info in most cases, however it may be the only method that can be used in some cases * For example, when dealing with categories, the only way to identify the most “typical” or average value would be to select the modal group

Answer 5

* Based on the spread of scores, how far scores vary and differ from on another * The range is easy to calculate but only takes into account the two most extreme values which may be unrepresentative of the data set as a whole * The range is also heavily influence by outliers/anomalies, it also does not give an idea whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out * Standard deviation is a single value that tells us how far scores deviate (move away) from the mean * Larger standard deviation means a greater dispersion or spread within a set of data * If we are referring to a particular condition in an experiment, larger SD suggests not all ppts were affected by IV in the same way, data widely spread, suggests there may be anomalous results * Low SD means data close to mean, implies all ppts responded in a fairly similar way * SD more precise than range, includes all values within the final calculation, however it can still be distorted by anomalies due to the fact it takes all values into consideration * Extreme values may also not be revealed unlike with the range

Answer 6

* Scattergram, represents strength and direction of relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis * Does not matter what axis either co-variable is placed upon * Bar chart, the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars * Used when data is separated into categories (discrete data) that occupy the x-axis, the y-axis contains the frequency or amount of each category * Bars are separated to show we are dealing with separate conditions * Histogram, shows frequency, area of the bars as well as the height represents the frequency, x-axis must start at a true zero and the scale is continuous * Bars touch each other which shoes the x-axis data is continuous rather than discrete * X-axis broken down into equal sized intervals representing single categories, y-axis represents the frequency within each interval * If there is no frequency for one interval, interval remains but without a bar

Answer 7

The two types of distribution are normal and skewed

Answer 8

* Normal distribution is a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern * The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak as shown in the image * The tails of the curve (each end) never touch the x-axis

Answer 9

* Skewed distribution is a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end * Positive skew, long tail on the right, most of distribution concentrated on the left * For example, a test where most people got low marks, only a handful scored highly * The mean median and mode also change positions as shown in the image * The order goes mode median and mean from left to right where the mode is at the highest point * Negative skew, long tail on the left, most of distribution concentrated on the right * For example, a test where everyone did very well, only a few people did poorly * The mean median and mode also change positions as shown in the image * The order goes mean median and mode from left to right where the mode is at the highest peak

Answer 10

* Step 1, we look for a difference between our two variables, if the number is -ve place a –, +ve place a +, if there is no difference than place a = sign * Step 2, we add pluses and minuses and compare the two totals (ignore =’s) * Step 3, We take the less frequent sign and call this s (our calculated value) * Step 4, we compare this to our critical value obtained using the significance of the test (5% 10% etc) and the sample size (N) * Step 5, we conclude whether the result is significant (Reject H0) or there is insufficient evidence (Accept H0) * The calculated value must be lower than the critical value for the test to be significant

Answer 11

* An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event * Often involves production of qualitative data, researcher may produce a case history of individual using interviews, observations, questionaries or a combo of all of these * Person may be subject to experimental or psychological testing producing quantitative data * Case studies tend to be longitudinal, may involve gathering additional data from family and friends as well as person themselves

Answer 12

* Type of observational research, ppl and their behvs studied indirectly via communications they produced * Forms of communication may include spoken interaction, written forms or broader examples from the media * Aim is to summarise and describe this communication in a systematic way so overall conclusions can be drawn

Answer 13

* Coding is the initial stage of context analysis, data sets can be extremely large, there is a need to categorise this info into meaningful units * May involve counting number of times particular word or phrase appears in text to produce a form of quantitative data * Coding basically means looking for patterns and trends using categories that make the large data sets meaningful/useful

Answer 14

* Form of content analysis that produces a qualitative outcome, main process involves identification of themes * A theme is an idea, explicit or implicit that is recurrent (keeps appearing as part of the commination being studied) * For example, ppl with mental health issues may be misrepresented in media “threat to children”, “drain resources of the NHS” * Themes found may be developed into broader categories like “control”, “stereotyping” or “treatment” * When researcher is happy that the themes, they developed cover most aspects of data they are analysing, they may collect new set of data to test validity of themes and categories * If these explain new data adequately, researcher will write final report, typically using direct quotes from data to illustrate each theme

Answer 15

* It can get around many ethical issues associated with psych research, material already exists within the public domain, no issues obtaining permission * Communications high in external validity, content analysis is flexible, produces both qualitative and quantitative data depending on aims of research * Ppl tend to be studied indirectly; communications produced usually analysed outside context within which it occurred * Danger that researcher bias may occur, researcher may attribute opinions and motivations to speaker or writer that were not intended originally * In the modern day, analysts are clear about how their won biases may influence the research process, may make reference of this in the final report * However, content analysis may still suffer from lack of objectivity, especially when more descriptive form of thematic analysis are employed (heavily subjective)

Answer 16

Measure of consistency, if test or measure assessed on some “thing”, expect same result different day unless thing itself changed

Answer 17

Reliability can be assessed using test-retest or inter-observer reliability

Answer 18

* It is a method, same test/questionnaire same person different occasions * Commonly used in questionaries, psychological test can be applied to interviews * Reliable if results similar same each time * Time between questionaries must be sufficient (not too long or too short) * Scores correlated make sure their similar, significant and +ve, the reliability assumed to be good

Answer 19

* It is the extent to which there is agreement between observers * Measured by correlating observations * The general rule is, correlation coefficient >= +0.8, high inter-observer reliability * Checked using a pilot study to see if observers applying behavioural categories same way

Answer 20

Measuring Reliability * Reliability is measured using a correlational analysis, sets of scores are correlated * Reliable if the correlation coefficient >= +0.8 for reliability

Answer 21

* Questionnaires that produce a low test-retest reliability may require slight alterations to improve its reliability * Questions rewritten or removed, open may be replaced with closed questions due to possible misinterpretation * Fixed questions are less ambiguous leading to less confusion

Answer 22

* Use same interviewer, or train interviewers to reduce leading questions or ambiguity * Structured Interviews, controlled more likely to be reliable * Avoid Unstructured interviews, free flowing less likely to be reliable

Answer 23

* Behavioural categories operationalised properly, measurable and self-evident * Categories should not overlap (“hug” “cuddle”), all behaviours must be categorised * Avoid Observers making own judgement, leading to inconsistent results * If reliability is low, then observers may need more training in using the behv categories * May wish to discuss decisions with each other so they can apply their categories more consistently

Answer 24

* Procedures must be the same (consistent) every time, Standardised Procedures * This is necessary so that the performance of different ppts can be compared

Answer 25

* Validity is whether result is legitimate/genuine, represents real world * Has researcher measured what they intended to measure? * Keep in mind something may produce reliable data that is not valid * A broken scale may give consistent readings off someone’s weight but it’s still not representative of the individuals actual weight

Answer 26

* Internal validity asks this question, Are effects observed due to manipulation of IV and not other factors? * A major threat to internal validity is Demand Characteristics

Answer 27

* External validity asks this question, Can findings be generalised to real world, beyond research setting? * There are two forms of EV, Ecological validity and Temporal validity

Answer 28

* Ecological Validity is a type of External Validity * It concerns generalising findings to everyday life (Mundane realism) * The extent to which findings can be generalised to other settings and situations * A task that has low mundane realism leads to lower ecological validity rather than an artificial setting being the culprit * For example, researcher may give ppt list of words to remember in a shopping mall, the setting does not make findings more “realistic”, * The fact a list is being used still makes the findings lack ecological validity * Therefore, all aspects of research should be assessed to decide whether findings can be generalised beyond a particular setting

Answer 29

* Temporal Validity is the issue of whether findings remain true over time, also a type of external validity * The extent that findings can be generalised to other historical times and eras * Critics suggest high rates of conformity in Asch’s study was due to conformist era at the time * Freud’s concept such as penis envy are deemed outdated, sexist and a reflection of patriarchal Victorian society within which he lived

Answer 30

Two ways of assessing validity, Face validity and Concurrent validity

Answer 31

* Face Validity is whether a test appears “on the face of it” to measure what it is supposed to measure * A measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what is it supposed to measure * Achieved by looking at it, “eyeballing”, giving it to an expert to view

Answer 32

* Concurrent Validity, results obtained are similar/matched with recognised/well established test * It is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure * Achieved by correlating results, correlation of two sets exceed +0.8 demonstrates close agreement between the two

Answer 33

* Using a control group, researcher able to better assess if IV effected DV * Standardised procedures used to minimise participant reactivity and investigator effects on the validity of the outcome * Single Blind, Double Blind procedures achieve same thing as above and reduces demand characteristics

Answer 34

* Lie scale, assess consistency of respondent’s responses and to control effects of social desirability bias * Making the questionnaire anonymous also enhances the validity of it

Answer 35

* Researcher not involved, higher ecological validity * In Covert observations, behaviour likely to be natural/authentic * Good Behavioural Categories that have been operationalised properly avoid negative impact on validity of the data collected

Answer 36

* Case Studies, Interviews better able to reflect participants reality * Interpretive Validity is the extent researcher’s interpretation matches participants * Demonstrated through coherence of researcher’s narrative and inclusion of participant direct quotes * Triangulation further enhances the validity, the use of different sources as evidence, friends’ family personal diaries improve validity

Answer 37

Used to determine whether a difference or association found is statistically significant, more than could have occurred by chance

Answer 38

* Difference or Association (Correlation) * Experimental Design being used (Independent Groups, Repeated Measures, Matched Pairs) * Level of Measurement (Nominal, Ordinal, Interval)

Answer 39

* Carrots Should Come * Mixed With Swead * Under Roast Potatoes * Keep in mind that Chi-Squared appears twice and Sign before Spear

Answer 40

* Nominal, Categories, Limited choices can only choose one (Fruits- Apple Banana Pear, Left or Right-handed) * Ordinal-, Ranking on a scale (1-10), subjective to opinion, can be put in order (Rating of Psychology out of 10) * Interval, Numerical scales, units of equal precise and defined size (Scores out of 40 on a test)

Answer 41

* Nominal, Mode, n/a * Ordinal, Median, Range * Interval, Mean, Standard Deviation

Answer 42

Same as Maths

Answer 43

* Type 1 (false positive) null rejected (should be accepted), alternative accepted (should be rejected) * Type 2 (false negative) null accepted (should be rejected), alternative rejected (should be accepted) * Boy cried wolf, everyone thinks there is wolves, no wolves (Type 1) * Boy cried wolf, everyone does not believe there is wolves, there is wolves (Type 2) * Type 1 caused by the significance level being too lenient (too high), can be avoided by using 0.01 rather than 0.05 or 0.05 rather than 0.1 * Type 2 caused by the significant level being too harsh (too low), can be avoided using 0.05 rather than 0.01 * Psychologists favour the 5% significance level as it best balances the risk of making a Type 1 or Type 2 error

Answer 44

The five areas of a scientific report are Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, Referencing

Answer 45

Short summary (150-200 words) includes all major elements (aims, hypotheses, methods, procedures, results and conclusions)

Answer 46

* Literature review of general area of research detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study * Should follow a logical progression, beginning broadly and gradually becoming more specific until aims and hypothesis are presented

Answer 47

* Should include sufficient detail so that other researchers are able to precisely replicate the study * Design, clearly stated (experimental group, type of observation etc), reasons/justification given for choice * Sample, info related to ppl involved in study (bio/demographic info), sampling method and target population (info should not compromise anonymity) * Apparatus/materials, details of assessment instruments used and other relevant materials * Procedure, list of everything that happened in the investigation from beginning to end, includes everything said to ppts (briefing, standardises instructions and debriefing) * Ethics, explanations of how these were addressed within the study

Answer 48

* Should summarise key findings from the investigation, likely to have descriptive statistics (tables, graphs, charts, measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion) * Inferential statistics should include referred to choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, level of significance and final outcome (what hypothesis was rejected) * Any raw data and calculations appear in the appendix of the report * If researcher used qualitative methods, results/findings likely to involve analysis of themes and/or categories

Answer 49

* Researcher will summarise results/findings verbally rather than statistically, should be discussed in context of evidence presented in intro and other research that may be considered relevant * Researcher should discuss limitations of present investigation, may include suggestions of how limitations may be addressed in future study * Wider implications also considered, RWA of what has been discovered and what contributions the investigation has made to existing knowledge-base within the field

Answer 50

* Full details of any source material cited in the report, follow the format below * Three types of references each with different formats, Journal references, Book references and Web references * Journal reference format, Author(s), Date, Article Title, Journal name (in italics), Volume (issue), Page numbers * Gupta, S. (1991), Effects of time of day and personality on intelligence scores, Personality and Individual Differences, 12(11), 1227-1231 * Book reference format, Author(s), Date, Title of book (in italics), Place of publication, Publisher * Skinner, B. F. (1953), Science and Human Behaviour, New York: MacMillan * Web reference format, Source, Data, Title, Weblink, data accessed * NHS (2018) Phobias: https//www.nhs.uk/conditions/phobias/ [Accessed May 2020]

Answer 51

* Kuhn (1962) suggested what distinguishes scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines is a shared set of assumptions and methods, a paradigm * A paradigm is a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline * Psychology has too much internal disagreements and conflicting approaches to qualify as a science, it is therefore a pre-science * Researchers question the accepted paradigm; this critique gather popularity and pace leading to a paradigm shift * A paradigm shift is the result of a scientific revolution, there is a significant change in dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline * This occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore

Answer 52

* A theory is a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behvs * Theory construction occurs through gathering evidence via direct observation * For example, if we had a hunch that STM had limited capacity based on the observation that people struggle to remember things when bombarded with info * Experiments reveal that STM has a span of 7 items, a theory becomes constructed * It is a simple and economical principle which appears to reflect reality, provides understanding by explaining regularities in behv * Theories should suggest a number of possible hypotheses, these can be tested using systematic and objective methods to determine whether it will be supported or refuted * In the case that the hypothesis is supported, the theory becomes strengthened * The process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory is known as deduction

Answer 53

* Kuhn and Popper (1934) argued the key criterion of a scientific theory is its falsifiability * The theory should hold itself up for hypothesis testing and the possibility to be proven wrong * The theory is never fully true, it just hasn’t been proven wrong yet * Theories that still stand strong when going through multiple hypothesis tests become the strongest * Not necessarily because they are true, they just have not been proven wrong by researchers * This is why an alternate hypothesis is always accompanied by a null hypothesis as well as why we say support rather than prove

Answer 54

* If scientific theory is to be trusted, the findings must be shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts and circumstances * Replicability can also be used to assess the validity of a finding, the more consistent the findings across different contexts and circumstances, the greater the extent we can generalise * Replication is only possible with a good report on investigations with as much precision and rigour as possible so other researchers can verify their work and findings, they have established

Answer 55

* Scientific researchers must maintain objectivity as part of their investigations, they cannot allow their personal opinions or biases to taint the data they collect or influence behv of ppts there studying * Methods in psychology that are associated with the greatest level of control tend to be the most objective * Empirical methods emphasis the importance of data collection based on direct sensory experience * It is a scientific approach that is based on gathering evidence through direct observation and experience * Experimental method and observational method are examples of empirical method in psychology * A theory cannot be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified

Research Methods Flashcards

(79 cards)