Gender Flashcards
1
Q
Key Concepts- Sex
- What status does sex refer to?
- What is it a result of, what does this mean?
- How is it determined?
- What does this influence?
A
- Sex refers to persons biological status, Male or Female
- It is innate, biologically determined, result of nature
- Determined by pair of sex chromosomes, Male (XY), Female (XX)
- These influence hormonal differences as well as anatomy differences
- This includes hair growth, reproductive organs, body shape
2
Q
Key Concepts- Gender
- What status does gender refer to?
- What is included in assessing masculinity and femininity?
- What heavily influences this?
- What is gender a result of?
- What is gender considered to be, what is this?
- Is gender fixed?
- What could influence an individual’s masculinity or femininity?
A
- Gender refers to psychological status, masculine or feminine
- Includes attitudes, roles and behaviours associated with “being man”, “being woman”
- These are heavily influenced by social norms, cultural expectations
- Gender partly environmentally determined, result of nurture
- Gender assigned, social construct rather than biological fact
- A social construct is an idea created and accepted by people in a society
- Gender not fixed (partially environmentally determined), fluid and open to change
- Individual becomes more masculine or feminine depending on social context and the norms and expectations associated with it
3
Q
Key Concepts- Gender dysphoria
- What is gender dysphoria?
- How may an individual deal with this?
A
- For most bio sex and gender identity correspond (bio male masculine, bio female feminine)
- Some experience gender dysphoria, bio sex not reflect way they feel inside, gender identity
- May choose to have gender reassignment surgery in order to bring sexual identity in line with gender identity
4
Q
Key Concepts- Sex-role stereotypes
- What is sex-role stereotypes?
- Who reinforces these?
- What could this lead to?
A
- Set of shared expectations, people in society or culture hold about what is acceptable or unusual behaviour for men and women
- Reinforced by parents, peers, media, schools.
- Could lead to sexist assumptions, e.g., woman can’t cope with position of high responsibility
5
Q
Defining Androgyny
- What is Androgyny, give an example?
- What did Sandra Bem develop?
- What did this suggest, what was the reason for this?
- Who can be classified as androgynous?
A
- A personality type that is characterised as a balance of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes and behaviours
- For example, man or women competitive (masculine) but also caring (feminine)
- Sandra Bem developed method of measuring androgyny
- Suggested high androgyny associated with psychological well being
- Individuals who are balanced better equipped to adapt to a range of situations
- Non-androgynous people would find this difficult, narrower range of traits to draw on
- Both men and women can be classified as androgynous
6
Q
Measuring Androgyny, The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
- Describe the procedure of BSRI (1974)
- How were scores classified?
- When is an individual classified as Masculine?
- When is an individual classified as Feminine?
- When is an individual classified as Androgynous?
- When is an individual classified as Undifferentiated?
A
- Sandra Bem’s (1974) scale presents 20 masculine characteristics, 20 feminine characteristics and 20 neutral traits
- Respondents rate themselves, 7-point rating scale for each item (1 “never true of me”, 7 “always true of me”)
- Scores classified on the basis of two dimensions masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated
- High Masculine Low Feminine- Masculine
- Low Masculine High Feminine- Feminine
- High Masculine High Feminine- Androgynous
- Low Masculine Low Feminine- Undifferentiated
7
Q
Evaluation of BSRI
A
- Quantitative approach (Bem 1974, Spencer 1984)
- Validity and Reliability (Bem 1974)
- Counterpoint (Temporal Validity)
- Self-awareness
- Reductionist (Adams and Sherer 1985)
8
Q
Quantitative approach (Bem 1974, Spencer 1984)
A
- Strength of Bem’s work, androgyny measured quantitatively
- Numerical approach useful to quantify a dependent variable for example
- Spence (1984) argues more to gender than behaviours typical of male or female
- Compromise is combination, for example Personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ) adds another dimension (instrumentally and expressivity)
- Suggest both qualitative and quantitative approaches may be useful for studying different aspects of androgyny
9
Q
Validity and Reliability (Bem 1974)
A
- At the time, appeared to be valid and reliable way of measuring androgyny
- Scale developed, 50 male 50 female rate 200 traits, how much traits represented “maleness” or “femaleness”
- Traits that scored highest in each category became 20 masculine 20 feminine on scale
- BSRI piloted with 1000+ students, results broadly corresponded with ppts own description of their gender identity, demonstrates validity
- Follow up study, smaller sample size same students, similar scores produced one month later, demonstrates test-retest reliability
- Suggests test is both valid and reliable
10
Q
Counterpoint (Temporal Validity)
A
- Developed over 40 years ago, behaviours regarded as “typical” and “acceptable” in relation to gender changed significantly
- Scale made up of stereotypical ideas, outdated, only used people from US
- Notions of maleness and femaleness may not be shared across all cultures and societies
- Suggest BSRI may lack temporal validity and has low generalisation, not a suitable measure of gender identity today
11
Q
Self-awareness
A
- Limitation of BSRI, people may not have insight into their degree of masculinity, femininity or androgyny
- People rate themselves, relies on people having understanding of their personality and behaviour
- Gender is a social construct, more open to interpretation
- Scoring system is subjective, people’s application of the scale may differ
- Suggests BSRI may not be an objective, scientific way of assessing M, F and A
12
Q
Reductionist (Adams and Sherer 1985)
A
- Assumes that Gender identity is based on a single score
- Multiple factors make up gender identity
- Reductionist, too simplistic
- Adams and Sherer (1985), 101 undergraduate students compared using BSRI
- Found those who scored highly on masculine traits (both male and female) displayed high levels of assertiveness and self-efficacy
- Bem states these traits are primarily associated with androgynous people
- This research therefore contradicts Bem’s statement
13
Q
The role of chromosomes
- What are Genes?
- What are chromosomes made from, what is their role?
- How many chromosomes in the human body, how many pairs?
- What pair of chromosomes determine the biological sex?
- What do normal egg cells have, what does sperm carry?
- How is a babies sex determined?
- What gene does the Y chromosome carry
- What does this gene cause and produce?
A
- Genes are short sections of DNA, determine characteristics of living thing
- Chromosomes are made from DNA, they carry information (info is in the form of genes)
- 46 Chromosomes, 23 Pairs in human body, 23rd pair determines biological sex
- Normal egg cells produced by human ovary have an X chromosome
- Sperm carry X or Y chromosome, baby sex determined by sperm that fertilises the egg
- Y chromosome carries gene called “sex determining region Y” (SRY)
- SRY gene causes testes to develop in XY embryo
- Testes produce androgens (male sex hormones)
14
Q
The role of hormones
- What is gender development influenced by?
- What are hormones, how do they travel in the body?
- What happens prenatally referring to hormones?
- What triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics?
- Give an example of one secondary sexual characteristic
- What is the difference between males and females referring to hormones?
- What is the primary importance in male development?
A
- Gender development comes through the influence of hormones
- Hormones are chemical messengers that affect target organ, circulate in the blood
- Before birth (Prenatally) in womb, hormones act upon brain development, causes development of reproductive organs
- At puberty, burst of hormonal activity triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics (pubic hair)
- Males and Females produce many of same hormones, different concentrations
- Primary importance in, male development is androgynes such as testosterone
15
Q
Testosterone
- What is testosterone?
- What does it control?
- What happens if a genetic male produces no testosterone during foetal development?
- What happens if a genetic female produces testosterone during foetal development?
- What are high levels of testosterone linked to?
- Describe the evolutionary explanation for this
A
- Male hormone, present in small quantities in women
- Controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development
- If genetic male produces no testosterone during this time, no male sex organs appear
- If genetic female produces high levels of testosterone during this time, male sex organs may appear
- High levels testosterone linked to aggression because its adaptive (evolutionary explanation)
- Aggression towards rivals, males compete to mate with fertile female
- Women tend to children, men more likely to take hunter role, success enhance by aggressiveness
16
Q
Oestrogen
- What is oestrogen?
- What does it cause?
- What are these effects referred to as?
- What do researches say about the disorder linked to this?
A
- Female hormone, determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
- Alongside physical changes, causes heightened emotionality and irritability during the menstrual cycle
- Referred to as premenstrual syndrome (PMS) when effects become diagnosable disorder
- Existence of PMS as a viable medical category is disputed between some researchers
17
Q
Oxytocin
- What does oxytocin do, what does this make possible?
- When is it release in large quantities?
- What does it do to new mothers?
- What is suggested about men referring to oxytocin?
A
- Women typically produce this in much larger amounts than men, result of giving birth
- Hormone stimulates lactation, makes it possible to breastfeed, reduces stress hormone cortisol
- Facilitates bonding, referred to as “love hormone”
- Released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth
- Makes new mothers feel “in love” with child
- Men produce less, however evidence suggests both M and F produce oxytocin in roughly equal amounts during amorous activities (kissing, sex)
18
Q
Evaluation for the role of sex hormones in gender development
A
- Evidence of testosterone (Wang et al 2000)
- Counterpoint (O’Connor et al 2004)
- Social factors ignored (Hofstede et al 2010)
- Reductionist
19
Q
Evidence of testosterone (Wang et al 2000)
- What does this evidence support?
- What is male hypogonadism?
- What was Wang’s procedure?
- What did Wang discover?
- What does this show about testosterone?
A
- Evidence supports the role of sex hormones in gender development in mature males
- Wang et al (2000) confirmed link between increased testosterone and sexual behaviour
- Male hypogonadism, condition where testes fail to produce normal levels of testosterone
- 227 men with this given testosterone therapy for 180 days
- Changes monitored, found improved sexual function, libido and mood
- Demonstrates testosterone exerts a powerful, direct influence on male sexual arousal as well as physical development in adulthood
20
Q
Counterpoint (O’Connor et al 2004)
- What does other evidence of testosterone suggest?
- Describe the procedure of O’Conner et al 2004
- What did he find?
- What does this suggest?
- What type of study was is, evaluate this
A
- Other evidence on effect of testosterone less convincing
- O’Conner et al (2004), double blind, placebo study, increased testosterone levels in healthy young men
- One group given drugs that boost testosterone another given placebo
- Double blind and placebo controls investigator effects and demand characteristics
- No significant increases in interactional (frequency of sex) or non-interactional (sex-drive) components of sexual behaviour
- Experienced no change in aggression or anger levels
- Suggests additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour
- Does not challenge role of testosterone in early development
21
Q
Social factors ignored (Hofstede et al 2010)
- What did Hofstede et al 2010 claim?
- What did these researchers equate?
- Give an example of an advanced capitalist society, describe them
- What does this suggest?
A
- Limitation of bio accounts, ignore role of social factors in gender-related behaviour
- Hofstede et al 2010 claimed gender roles more a consequence of social norms than biology
- Equated notions of masculinity and femininity with whether whole cultures are individualist or collectivist
- Countries place individual competition; independence above needs of community more masculine in their outlook
- Includes advanced capitalist societies (US and UK)
- Traditional masculine traits more highly valued within these societies
- Challenges bio explanations of gender behaviour, suggests social factors more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes
22
Q
Reductionist
- How is role of chromosomes and hormones reductionist?
- Give two alternative explanations not considered
- What does this suggest about gender?
A
- Accounts reduce gender to level of chromosomes and hormones
- Accused of ignoring or underplaying alternative explanations
- Cognitive approach, attention to influence of thought processes, schema
- Psychodynamic approach, attention to importance of childhood experiences, interaction within family
- Areas not adequately explained by biological model
- Suggest gender more complex than biological influences alone
23
Q
Atypical sex chromosome patterns
- Definition
A
This is any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from XX/XY, associated with physical and psychological symptoms
24
Q
Klinefelter’s syndrome
- How much people does this affect?
- Who is affected, what is their chromosome structure?
- What fraction unaware they have the syndrome?
A
- Example of atypical sex chromosome pattern, affects 1 in 600 males
- People affected are males, have anatomy of male but chromosome structure (XXY)
- Two thirds people not aware they have the syndrome
25
Q
Physical Characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome
- List the physical characteristics
A
- Reduced body hair, breast development, softer/rounder body shape
- Long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals, problems with co-ordination, general clumsiness
- Susceptible to health problems, more commonly found in females such as breast cancer
26
Q
Psychological Characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome
- List the psychological characteristics
A
- Linked to poorly developed language skills and reading ability
- Tend to be passive and shy, lack interest in sexual activity
- Do not cope well with stress, exhibit problems with memory and problem solving
27
Q
Turner’s syndrome
- How much people does this affect?
- Who is affected, what is their chromosome structure?
A
- 1 in 500 females have this disorder
- Caused by absence of X chromosome (XO), have 45 rather than 46 chromosomes
- This results in developmental abnormalities and infertility
28
Q
Physical Characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
- List the physical characteristics
A
- Do not have menstrual cycle, ovaries do not develop leads to infertility
- Do not develop breasts, broad “shield” chest, low set ears, webbed neck
- High waist-to-hip ratio, physically immature, retain appearance of prepubescent girls
29
Q
Psychological Characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
- List the psychological characteristics
A
- Higher-than-average reading ability
- Performance on spatial, visual memory, mathematical tasks often lower than average
- Tend to be socially immature, trouble relating to peers, difficulty “fitting in”
30
Q
Evaluation of Atypical sex chromosome patterns
A
- Nature-nurture debate
- Counterpoint (Could be nurture)
- Real-world application (Herlihy et al 2011)
- Sampling issue (Boada et al 2009)
31
Q
Nature-nurture debate
A
- Strength, Contribution to nature-nurture debate
- Comparing people with syndrome with typical individuals, possible to see psych and behv differences between two groups
- For example, people with Turner syndrome, higher verbal ability, talk more than “typical” girls
- Differences have bio basis, direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure
- Supports view that innate “nature” influences have powerful effect on psychology and behaviour
32
Q
Counterpoint (Could be nurture)
A
- Relationship between syndromes and atypical chromosomal patterns not causal
- May be environmental and social influences more responsible for behv differences observed
- Social immaturity may arise from being treated “immaturely”
- Peers, Parents etc may react in way that encourages immature behaviour
- Indirect impact upon performance at school (hence specific learning developmental problems identified)
- Suggests it’s wrong to assume psych and behv differences are due to just nature, could also be nurture
33
Q
Real-world application (Herlihy et al 2011)
A
- Strength of research, its application to managing the syndromes
- Continued research likely to lead to earlier, more accurate diagnoses of syndromes
- Also, more positive outcomes in future
- Herlihy et al (2011) study of 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome
- Showed those who identified and treated from young age experienced significant benefits in terms of managing syndrome compared to people diagnosed in adulthood
- Suggests increased awareness has useful real-world application
34
Q
Sampling issue (Boada et al 2009)
A
- Limitation, sampling issue
- In order to identify characteristics of XXY and XO individuals, necessary to identify large number of individuals to build database
- Full range of characteristics seen from mild to severe
- In general, only people with most severe symptoms identified
- Therefore, picture of typical symptoms may be distorted
- Boada et al (2009) reports that prospective studies produced more accurate picture of characteristics
- Many individuals with Klinefelter’s do not experience significant cog or psych problems
- Many highly successful academically and in their personal lives and careers
- Suggests typical picture of syndrome may well be exaggerated
35
Q
Cognitive Explanations of Gender development
- What are the two cognitive explanations of gender development?
A
There are two cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory of gender and Gender Schema Theory (GST).
36
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory- Stages in Development
- What idea is the theory based on?
- What is the link to age?
- What is the understanding of gender parallel to?
- What are the 3 stages?
- Describe transition between stages
A
- Theory based on idea that child’s understanding of gender more sophisticated with age
- This includes appropriate gender roles behaviours and attitudes
- Link to age not experience, its bio maturation (brain matures, thinking matures)
- Understanding of gender parallel to intellectual development as child matures biologically
- 3 stages, ages suggested approximate, reflects transition between stages is gradual not sudden
- The 3 stages are Gender identity, Gender stability and Gender constancy
37
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory- Gender identity (Stage 1)
- What is the child able to do at age ()?
- What are most children able to do at age ()?
- How far is their understanding at this stage?
- Give an example
A
- Age 2, child able to correctly identify themselves as boy or girl (Gender identity)
- Age 3, most can identify other people and correctly respond to questions
- Example of question, “Which of these like you?”, pictures shown of males and females
- Understanding is only simple labelling at this stage, often do not view gender as fixed
- Example, 2-year-old boy says “Grow up to be a mummy”
38
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory- Gender stability (Stage 2)
- What does the child realise at age ()?
- How do they apply this logic, what does this mean?
- What do they also believe at this stage?
A
- Age 4, realisation always stay same gender over time (Gender stability)
- This logic not applied to other people, still confused by external changes in appearance
- Example, man long hair, describe them as woman
- Also believe people change gender, engage activities associated with different gender
- Examples, Female builder, Male nurse
39
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory- Gender constancy (Stage 3)
- What does the child recognise/realise at age ()?
- How do they apply this logic, what does this mean?
- What does the child begin to seek at this stage?
- What happens when child has a developed and internalised concept of gender?
- What does this lead to?
A
- Age 6, recognises gender constant across time and situations
- This understanding applied to other people’s gender as well as their own
- No longer fooled by outward appearance, male in dress still man (may find it unusual)
- Child begins to seek gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate
- According to Kohlberg, once child has a fully developed and internalised concept of gender
- Embark on active search for evidence that confirms that concept
- This leads to a tendency towards gender stereotyping at this age
40
Q
Evaluation for Kohlberg’s Theory
A
- Research support (Damon 1977, Slabby and Frey 1975)
- Counterpoint (Bussey and Bandura 1999, Campbell 2004)
- Methodological issues (Bem 1989)
- Cross Cultural support (Munroe et al 1984)
41
Q
Research support (Damon 1977, Slabby and Frey 1975)
A
- Strength, evidence to suggest gender stereotyping emerges around age 6
- Damon (1977) told children story about George, boy who like to play with dolls
- Children asked to comment, 4-year-olds said its fine
- 6-year-olds thought it was wrong, demonstrating gender stereotyping (rules)
- Suggest children who achieve constancy form rigid stereotypes on gender appropriate behaviour
- Also, evidence supporting the gender constancy stage
- Slabby and Frey (1975), children watched video male female doing same tasks
- Young children looked both equally, older looked at model who was same sex (role model)
- Suggests that Kohlberg was correct, more reliable (Also consider opposite, Imposed etic)
42
Q
Counterpoint (Bussey and Bandura 1999, Campbell 2004)
A
- Other research challenges idea that gender stereotyping only develops at age 6
- Bussey and Bandura (1999) found children young as 4 reported
- “Feel good” playing gender appropriate toys, “bad” when doing opposite
- Contradicts Kohlberg, suggests Kohlberg was wrong
- Campbell (2004), longitudinal study (same ppts) 56 children ages 2 and 3
- Sat with parent, shown pictures, asked to point to “girls” toy, “boys” toy
- 53% point to correct photo age 2, 94% point to correct photo age 3
- Suggests Kohlberg’s theory is weak, out of date (lacks temporal validity)
- Environmental factors same (Nurture), Same children (Good reliability)
43
Q
Methodological issues (Bem 1989)
A
- Limitation, supporting research poor methodology to assess gender constancy
- Bem (1989) criticised methodology used in studies linking gender and cog development
- Key test in such studies, child understands gender stays same despite changes to appearance and context
- Bem argued best way to identify males’ females through physical differences (Genitalia)
- In her study, demonstrated 40% children (age 3-5) demonstrated constancy if shown naked photos
- Child therefore based judgment on more than clothing
- Suggests typical way of testing may misrepresent what younger children actually know
- Younger children may also lack the vocabulary to express their understanding
44
Q
Cross Cultural support (Munroe et al 1984)
A
- Strength, cross cultural support of Kohlberg’s theory
- Munroe et al (1984) studied children across cultures
- Found children progress through same stages outline by Kohlberg
- Suggests sequence may be biologically driven, not down to cultural and social norms
- Suggests gender development more Nature than Nurture
- Suggests that Kohlberg’s Theory has good ecological validity, can be generalised universally
45
Q
Gender Schema Theory (GST)
- What does the theory argue?
- What does this theory share with Kohlberg’s theory?
A
- Martin and Halverson’s (1981), cognitive developmental theory
- Argues children’s understanding of gender changes with age (Like Kohlberg’s theory)
- Shares Kohlberg’s view that children develop understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning rather than passively observing, imitating role models
46
Q
Gender schema after gender identity
- What is a schema, how is it used by the cognitive system?
- What is gender schema?
- What happens at around age 2-3?
- How does this contrast to Kohlberg’s Theory?
A
- Schema, mental constructs that develop via experience (some present at birth in basic form)
- Used by cog system to organise knowledge around particular topics
- Gender schema, generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour
- Once child established gender identity, around age 2-3, begin search environment for info that encourages development of gender schema
- Contrasts Kohlberg’s view (Process only begins after 3 stages, around age 7 with gender constancy)
47
Q
Gender schema determine behaviour
- What is young children’s schema likely to be formed around?
- What does this provide?
- How does this affect a child understanding of themselves?
- What happens at the age of 6?
- What happens to info that does not fit with the child’s schema?
A
- Gender schema includes wide range of behvs and personality traits
- Young children, schema likely to be formed around stereotypes (boys trucks girls dolls)
- Provide framework that directs experience and child’s understanding of itself (“I am boy I play with trucks”)
- Age 6, fixed stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender
- For this reason, children likely to misremember, disregard info that does not fit with existing schema
48
Q
Ingroup information better remembered
- What is the ingroup, what is the outgroup?
- What do children pay closer attention to in reference to gender identity?
- What does ingroup identity increase?
- What develops at age 8?
A
- Children tend to have better understanding of the schema appropriate to their own gender (ingroup)
- Consistent with idea, children pay more attention to info relevant to their gender identity rather than other group (outgroup)
- Age 8, elaborate schema for both genders develops as opposed to just their own
- Ingroup identity increases child’s level of self-esteem
49
Q
Evaluation of Gender Schema Theory
A
- Research support (Martin and Halverson’s 1983)
- Earlier gender identity (Zosuls et al 2009)
- Counterpoint (Specific ages)
- Cultural Differences
50
Q
Research support (Martin and Halverson’s 1983)
A
- Strength, key principles of GST are supported by evidence
- Martin and Halverson’s (1983) own study, found Age 6 under more likely remember photos of stereotypically gender-appropriate behv (women wash dishes) than photos of gender-inappropriate behv (women fix car)
- When tested a week later above results found, child tend to change gender of person carrying out gender-inappropriate activity in photos when asked to recall them, gender behv was now appropriate
- Supports GST, predicts children under 6 years would do this (Contrast to Kohlberg predicted only happen when older)
51
Q
Earlier gender identity (Zosuls et al 2009)
A
- Limitation, gender identity probably develops earlier than suggested
- Longitudinal study 82 children (Zosuls et al 2009), looked at onset of gender identity
- Data obtained from twice-weekly reports from mothers on their children’s language age 9 to 21 months
- This and video taped analysis of children at play used
- Key measure of gender identity, how and when child labelled themselves “boy” or “girl”, occurred on average at 19 months (almost as soon as child begins to communicate)
- Suggests children actually have gender identity before this just don’t communicate it
- Suggests M and H underestimated ability to use gender labels about themselves
52
Q
Counterpoint (Specific ages)
A
- May not be appropriate to argue about specific ages
- M and H suggest key point is shifts in child’s thinking, ages are averages not absolutes
- Possible children move through stages quicker or slower
- Sequence of development that is more important
- Suggests Z et al findings not fundamental criticism of the theory
53
Q
Cultural Differences (Cherry 2019)
A
- Another strength, gender schema can account for cultural differences in stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour
- Cherry (2019), gender schema not only influence how people process info, also what counts as culturally appropriate gender behaviour
- Traditional cultures, believe women carer, men provider raise children, form schema consistent with this view
- Societies where perceptions of gender less rigid boundaries, children more likely to acquire more fluid gender schema
- M and H Theory can explain how gender schema is transmitted between members of society
- Also, can explain how cultural differences in gender stereotypes comes about
- Suggests that GST has good validity, can explain cultural differences
54
Q
Psychodynamic explanation of gender development
- What is the psychodynamic explanation of gender development?
A
The psychodynamic explanation of gender development is Freuds psychoanalytic theory
55
Q
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
- What does his theory suggest?
- What are child concepts before phallic stage?
- What happens during phallic stage?
A
- Freud’s (1905) gender developmental theory, children pass through the psychosexual stages
- At the phallic stage, gender development occurs (age 3-6)
- Prior to this, children have no concept of gender identity, no understanding of male and female
- Therefore, they do not categorise themselves or others in this way
- During phallic stage, child experiences Oedipus complex (boys) or Electra complex (girls)
- This is crucial in the formation of gender identity
56
Q
Oedipus complex
- What does this state, what gender is this associated with?
- How is this resolved?
A
- Boys want to have sex with mother, have jealous, murderous hatred for father
- Boy recognises father more powerful, fears castration by his father for having feelings towards mother (castration anxiety)
- To resolve this, boy gives up love for mother, identifies with father
57
Q
Electra complex
- What does this state, what gender is this associated with?
- What is the double resentment that develops?
- Where does this concept come from, what does it suggest?
A
- Girls experience penis envy, mother and girl competition for father’s love
- Develop double resentment (mother is a love rival, blamed mother for having no penis)
- Daughter believes they were castrated by mother at the same time mother castrated herself
- Concept of Electra complex came from Carl Jung
- Suggested girls accepts they will never have penis overtime, substitutes this with desire to have children
- As a result, they identify with their mothers
58
Q
Identification and internalisation
- Who identifies with who?
- What becomes internalised
- How is gender identity obtained?
A
- Both sexes identify with same gender parent to resolve respective complexes
- Adopt attitudes and values of same sex parent
- Take on gender identity as well, Freud referred to this process as internalisation
- Receive “second hand” gender identity at end of phallic stage
- Does not happen gradually, they just obtain gender identity at once there and then
59
Q
Little Hans
- What is this evidence for?
- Describe the case study
A
- Freud’s evidence for existence of Oedipus complex
- 5-year-old boy, morbid fear of being bitten by a horse
- Stemmed from incident, horse died in street
- Freud’s interpretation, Hans fear represented castration
- Freud suggested Hans transferred fear of father onto horses
- Done via unconscious defence mechanism, displacement
60
Q
Evaluation of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
A
- The Oedipus complex (Rekers and Morey 1990)
- Counterpoint (Bos and Sandfort 2010)
- Female development (Karen Horney 1942)
- Pseudoscientific (Popper 1959)
- Nature of development (Freud and Kohlberg)
61
Q
The Oedipus complex (Rekers and Morey 1990)
A
- Strength, support for role of Oedipus complex in gender development
- Freud’s explanation means “normal” development for boys relies on having at least one male parent
- Rekers and Morey (1990), rated gender identity of 49 boys (age 3-11), based on interview with families and children
- Those judged as “gender disturbed”, 75% had no bio father or sub father living with them
- Suggests being raised with no father has negative impact upon gender identity, in line with Freud
62
Q
Counterpoint (Bos and Sandfort 2010)
A
- Generally, relationship between absent fathers, problems gender identity not supported
- Bos and Sandfort (2010), compared data 63 children of lesbians, 68 children hetero families
- Children raised by lesbians, less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes, less likely to assume own gender is superior, no difference in psychosocial adjustment or gender identity
- Contradicts Freud, suggests fathers not necessary for healthy gender identity development
63
Q
Female development (Karen Horney 1942)
A
- Limitation, inadequate account of women’s development
- Jung (Freud’s contemporary) theorised on girls’ development; Freud focused heavily on Oedipus complex
- Freud lived in androcentric Victorian era; men held power
- Karen Horney (1942), argued more powerful emotion than penis envy, men’s “womb envy”
- This is a reaction to women’s ability to nurture and sustain life
- Horney argued penis envy and womb envy, result of cultural not bio factors
- Challenges idea that women’s gender development founded on desire to want to be like a man (androcentric bias)
64
Q
Pseudoscientific (Popper 1959)
A
- Limitation, explanation lacks scientific credibility
- Freud criticised, used subjective case studies, his concepts untestable (unconscious)
- Contrasts with other explanations, based on objective, verifiable evidence from lab studies
- According to Popper (1959), makes Freud’s theory pseudoscientific (not genuine science)
- Ideas cannot be falsified, questions validity of theory, not based on scientific evidence
65
Q
Nature of development (Freud and Kohlberg)
A
- Freud argued children do not begin to show gender appropriate behaviour till after age 6
- Somewhat agrees with Kohlberg, suggested children act in gender appropriate way after gender constancy (age 6)
- However, Kohlberg suggests concept that gender gradually develops
- Freud in contrast states gender is acquired in one fell swoop, all at once, no build up
- Freud’s view clearly overly simplistic, unlikely that a complex concept like gender arrives “second-hand” and at once as suggested by Freud
66
Q
Social Learning Theory explanation of gender development
- What does SLT state?
- What does this pay attention to?
A
- SLT acknowledges role that social context plays in development, states all behv (including gender related) learned from observing others
- Attention to influence of enviro (nurture) in shaping gender development
- Includes significant others (parent peer teacher), wider influence of culture and the media
67
Q
Direct reinforcement
- What is direct reinforcement in relation to gender?
- Give examples
- How do children learn their gender identity?
- When are children more likely to repeat a behaviour?
A
- Children more likely to be reinforced (praised), when demonstrating behv that is stereo gender appropriate
- Boys encourage to be active, girls rewarded for being passive and gentle
- The way they are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behv is called differential reinforcement
- Differential reinforcement, child learns their gender identity (I am boy)
- Child more likely to repeat behv that is reinforced (rewarded), may be direct or indirect
68
Q
Indirect (vicarious) reinforcement
- What is vicarious reinforcement in relation to gender?
- Give examples
A
- Consequences of other persons behv favourable, more likely to be imitated by child
- Little girl sees mom get compliment when wearing make-up, she tries to repeat this behv
- Consequences are unfavourable, less likely to be imitated
- Boy sees another boy get teased for displaying feminine behv, behv unlikely to be copied
69
Q
Identification and modelling
- What is identification in relation to gender?
- What is a role model, where are role models found?
- What do role models tend to be like?
- What is modelling?
- Give an example of this
A
- Identification, child attaches themselves to person “like me”, “I want to be”
- Person has qualities child sees as desirable, known as role models
- Could be present in immediate enviro (teacher, parent etc), or present within the media (footballer)
- Role models tend to be attractive, have high status, same gender as child
- Modelling, precise demonstration of behv that may be imitated by observer
- Mother may model stereo fem behv when tidying house, prepare dinner
- Little girl copies this, modelling the behv she witnessed
70
Q
Mediational processes
- What is mediational processes
- What are the mediational processes?
- Give examples for each
A
- Cog processes that are central to learning of gender behaviour
- Attention, boy wants to emulate footballer, close attention to what footballer does
- Retention, remembers skills of footballer, tries reproduce this on playground
- Motivation, Desire to repeat, want to be like “his hero” (identification)
- Motor reproduction, boy must be physically capable of doing so
71
Q
Evaluation for SLT explanation of gender development
A
- Research support (Smith and Llyod 1978)
- Counterpoint
- No developmental sequence
- Cultural changes
- Identification
72
Q
Research support (Smith and Llyod 1978)
A
- Strength, key principles of SLT supported by evidence
- Smith and Llyod (1978), babies (4-6 months, irrespective of actual sex), dressed half time boy clothes other half girls’ clothes
- When observed interacting with adults, “boys” more likely given hammer rattle, encourage to be adventurous and active
- “Girls” more likely given cuddly doll, told they are “pretty”, reinforced for being passive
- Suggests gender appropriate behv stamped in at early age, through differential reinforcement, support SLT
73
Q
Counterpoint
A
- Differential reinforcement, may not be cause of gender differences
- Adults may be responding to innate gender differences, already there
- Boy encouraged to be more active, consequence of the fact they are naturally more active anyway, hormonal differences
- Suggests SLT only part of explanation of how children acquire gender-related behaviour
74
Q
No developmental sequence
A
- Limitation, does not provide adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age
- General implication of SLT, modelling of gender-appropriate behv can occur at any age (birth onwards)
- Illogical, 2-year-old learn same way as 9-year-old
- Suggests influence of age and maturation on learning gender concepts, not factor considered by SLT
75
Q
Cultural changes
A
- Strength, SLT can explain cultural changes in stereo gender appropriate behaviour
- Less of clear-cut distinction between masculine and feminine today compared to before
- No corresponding change in basic biology of people within same period
- Shift may be better explained by SLT than a bio approach
- Shift in social expectation, cultural norms, new forms of gender behv unlikely to be punished, may be reinforced
- Shows SLT can explain cultural changes in gender behv
76
Q
Cultural changes
A
- Strength, SLT can explain cultural changes in stereo gender appropriate behaviour
- Less of clear-cut distinction between masculine and feminine today compared to before
- No corresponding change in basic biology of people within same period
- Shift may be better explained by SLT than a bio approach
- Shift in social expectation, cultural norms, new forms of gender behv unlikely to be punished, may be reinforced
- Shows SLT can explain cultural changes in gender behv
77
Q
Identification
A
- Freud, same gender parent necessary for child to gain “second hand” gender identity
- SLT, multiple gender-appropriate role models alongside same gender parent
- Same gender parent important, not “be all end all” in terms of influence
- Absence of same gender parent, child model gender appropriate behv elsewhere
- Many same gender role models within environment or media
- Suggest key people might be a key influence but not the sole influence
78
Q
Influence of Culture and Media on Gender roles
A
Look into how Culture and Media both affect gender roles
79
Q
Culture and Gender roles
- What is cross-cultural research, what is this useful for?
- What can we conclude if a gender role behaviour is consistent across different cultures?
- What can we conclude if a gender role behaviour is specific to a particular culture?
A
- Cross-cultural research valuable contribution to nature-nurture debate in Gender
- If particular gender-role behv consistent across different cultures, may conclude this represents an innate bio difference between males and females
- If some gender-role behv culturally specific, assume influence of shared norms and socialisation is decisive
80
Q
Cultural differences (Mead 1935) (Nurture)
- Discuss Mead’s (1935) research in Papua New Guinea
- What did she conclude?
- What does Mead admit in her later work?
- What does Mead argue in her later work?
A
- Cross-cultural studies conducted in Papua New Guinea by Mead (1935)
- Arapesh gentle and responsive (similar to stereotype of F in industrialised societies)
- Mundugumor aggressive and hostile (similar to stereotype of M in industrialised societies)
- Tchambuli women dominant, organised village, men passive considered “decorative” (reverse stereotype in industrialised societies)
- Suggests may not be direct bio relationship between sex and gender, gender roles may be culturally determined
- Later work, Mead admitted she underestimated universal nature of gender typical behv
- She argued extent innate behv expressed result of cultural norms
81
Q
Cultural similarities (Buss 1995, Munroe and Munroe 1975) (Nature)
- What did Buss (1995) find?
- What did Munroe and Munroe (1975) find?
A
- Buss (1995) found consistent patterns in mate preference (gender-role behv) in 37 countries across all continents
- All cultures, women wanted men with wealth/resources men wanted physically attractive young women
- Munroe and Munroe (1975), revealed in most societies, division of labour organised along gender lines
- Men “breadwinners”, Women “nurturers”
82
Q
Evaluation of Culture and Gender roles
A
- Research support (Hofstede 2001)
- Mead’s Research (Freeman 1983)
- Nature or Nurture
83
Q
Research support (Hofstede 2001)
A
- Strength, influence of culture on changing gender roles supported by evidence
- Hofstede (2001) argued industrialised cultures changing status and expectations of women have allowed increase of women in the workplace as opposed to usual domestics
- In advanced industrialised societies, traditional stereotypes are being broken down
- Traditional societies, women still “house-maker” as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures
- Suggests gender roles determined by cultural context
84
Q
Mead’s Research (Freeman 1983)
A
- Limitation, Mead’s research criticised
- Mead accused of making generalisations based on short period of study
- Freeman (1983), follow up study of people of Papua New Guinea after Mead investigation
- Argues Meads findings flawed, Mead misled by some ppts, Mead preconceptions of what she would find influenced reading of events (Observer bias, Investigator bias, Ethnocentrism, Imposed etic)
- Suggests Mead’s interpretations may not be objective, questions conclusions she drew
85
Q
Nature or Nurture
A
- Some elements of gender role behv appear to be universal, others culturally specific
- Suggest gender best seen as an interaction of nature and nurture (Interactionist approach)
86
Q
Media and Gender roles
- What does the media provide to children?
A
Media provides role models, children may identify, want to imitate them, it also provides rigid stereotypes as well as self-efficacy.
87
Q
Rigid Stereotypes (Bussey and Bandura 1999, Furnham and Farragher 2000)
- What did Bussey and Bandura (1999) find where depictions in media?
- What did Furnham and Farragher (2000) find?
- What does this suggest about medias role in gender?
A
- Evidence that media provides clear and rigid gender stereotypes
- Bussey and Bandura (1999) found the following depictions in media
- Men are independent, ambitious and “advice givers”
- Women are dependent, unambitious and “advice seekers”
- Furnham and Farragher (2000), men more likely shown in professional context, women shown in domestic settings
- Suggests media may play a role in reinforcing social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviour
88
Q
Self-efficacy (Mitra et al 2019)
- What does the media give to people?
- What increases a child’s beliefs of what behaviours are appropriate?
- Describe Mitra et al’s (2019) study
- What does this suggest about self-efficacy?
A
- Media gives info to men and women about likely success or otherwise of adopting behaviours
- Seeing others perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases child’s beliefs, they are capable doing behaviours in future (self-efficacy)
- Mitra et al 2019 study that analysed attitudes of people in India who watched programme designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes
- Detective drama, ran 78 episodes, girls who watched more likely to see themselves as capable to work outside home than non-viewers
- Suggests self-efficacy changed as a result of media influence
89
Q
Evaluation of Media and Gender roles
A
- Cultivation Theory (Bond and Drogos 2014)
- Child does not blindly consume media implications (Durkin 1985)
- Counter stereotypes (Pingree 1978)
90
Q
Cultivation Theory (Bond and Drogos 2014)
A
- Strength of research, has theoretical basis
- Theory argues more time individual spends online/media; more likely they believe this reflects into social reality
- Bond and Drogos (2014), found +ve correlation between time watching reality TV and permissive attitudes towards casual sex
- Effect still true when researchers-controlled influence of factors such as existing sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs
- Suggests media “cultivates” perception of reality, affects gender behv
91
Q
Child does not blindly consume media implications (Durkin 1985)
A
- Limitation, may not be a causal relationship (media influence does not cause gender norms in child)
- Durkin (1985), argues young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages
- Norms in family bigger determinant on gender attitudes and behv
- If media confirms existing gender norms held by family, reinforces these norms in child’s mind
- If it claims the opposite or something else, likely to be ignored or rejected “Can’t be”
- Suggests media influence secondary influence to other influences such as family
92
Q
Counter stereotypes (Pingree 1978)
A
- Evidence media can have positive role in changing gender-role stereotypes through counter-stereotypes
- Present people in gender-inappropriate ways (Disney’s Brave), break down cultural norms
- May be successful, “present new normal” and increase self-efficacy of children
- Pingree (1978), found gender stereotyping reduced in school children (3rd Grade) when shown adverts of women in non-stereotypical role
- Success dependent on nature of audience, boys in 8th grade, stereotypes stronger
- Boys wanted to maintain their viewpoint, could be because they wanted to show rebellion or non-conformity in front of peers
- Suggests success dependent on who is receiving the message
- Rejection or success heavily dependent on induvial differences of audience
- Counter-stereotypes must therefore be carefully considered, take account of those who are watching
93
Q
Atypical Gender Development
- What is atypical gender development?
A
This is an abnormality in gender development which can cause gender dysphoria.
94
Q
Gender Dysphoria
- What is gender dysphoria?
- What is this recognised as in DSM-5?
A
- Some people experience mismatch, bio sex at birth and gender identity
- Gender dysphoria, people that don’t identify with sex given at birth
- Gender dysphoria is a source of stress and discomfort
- Recognised as a psych disorder in DSM-5
95
Q
Biological Explanations for Gender Dysphoria
- What are the two biological explanations for gender dysphoria?
A
- The two biological explanations for gender dysphoria are brain sex theory and genetic factors
- Intersex conditions excluded from categorisation of gender dysphoria
96
Q
Brain Sex Theory (Kruijver et al 2000, Zhou et al 1995)
- Describe Kruijver et al’s (2000) study
- Describe Zhou et al’s (1995) research
- What does this suggest about gender dysphoria?
A
- Suggests gender dysphoria has basis in brain structure (the bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BST))
- Structure involved in emotional responses, larger in men than women, found that transgender females have female sized structure (Kruijver et al 2000)
- Suggests people with gender dysphoria have BST size of gender they identify with not bio sex
- Fits with reports of trans people who feel they are born wrong sex at early age (Zhou et al 1995)
- Follow up study, 6 trans people showed average BST neuron number in female range (Kruijver et al 2000)
97
Q
Genetic Factors (Coolidge et al 2002. Heylens et al 2012)
- Describe Coolidge et al’s (2002) study
- Describe Heylens et al’s (2012) study
- What is concordance rate in this context?
- What does this suggest about gender dysphoria?
A
- Coolidge et al (2002), 157 twin pairs (96 MZ, 61 DZ) assessed for GD
- Found 2.3% of the sample demonstrated atypical gender development,
- 62% of the variance could be explained by genetic factors, suggests strong heritable component to GD
- Heylens et al (2012) 23 MZ compared with 21 DZ, one of each pair diagnosed with GD
- Nine (39%) MZ twins concordant for GD, none of DZ concordant for GD
- Indicates role of genetic factors in development of GD
- Concordance refers to the probability of one twin having disorder given the other has it as a percentage
98
Q
Evaluation for Biological Explanations for Gender Dysphoria
A
- Contradictory evidence (Hulshoff Pot et al 2006)
- Other brain differences (Rametti et al 2011)
- Socially sensitive research
99
Q
Contradictory evidence (Hulshoff Pot et al 2006)
A
- Limitation, brain sex theory central claims challenged
- Hulshoff Pot et al (2006), studied trans ppl with MRI scans taken during hormone treatment
- Showed size of BST changed significantly during hormone treatment
- Kruijver et al and Zhou et al examined people post mortem and after receiving hormone treatment
- Suggests difference in BST may be effect of hormone therapy not cause of GD
100
Q
Other brain differences (Rametti et al 2011)
A
- Strength, may be other differences associated with GD
- Rametti et al (2011) studied white matter, regional differences in proportion of this in male and female brains
- Analysed trans M and F before hormone treatment, found amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to gender they identified with rather than biological sex
- Suggests there are early differences in brains of transgender individuals
101
Q
Socially sensitive research
A
- For some knowing there is a bio basis to GD may be a relief, removes responsibility from person when it is a medical category requiring treatment
- They may be less likely to assume the way they feel is “their fault”
- Others object to labelling GD as a mental disorder, risks stigmatising those subject to GD as ill or sick rather than just “different”, ppl may become subjects to prejudice or discrimination due to label
- Suggests research in GD may shaped how society views the label, how ppl may be viewed with this label
- Researchers therefore should avoid reinforcing damaging stereotypes were possible
102
Q
Social Explanations for Gender Dysphoria
- What are the two social explanations for gender dysphoria?
A
The two social explanations for GD are social constructionism and psychanalytic theory.
103
Q
Social constructionism (McClintock 2015)
- What does this perspective argue?
- What is gender dysphoria classified as under this?
- What did McClintock (2015) investigate and find?
- What does this suggest about gender dysphoria?
A
- This perspective argues gender identity does not reflect underlying bio differences between people, instead, these concepts “invented” by societies
- The gender “confusion” individuals with GD face caused by societies forcing people to be man or woman, pick side act accordingly
- GD not a pathological condition according to this perspective, it’s a social phenomenon caused by people needing to pick a particular path (man or woman)
- McClintock (2015), investigated genetic condition in the Sambia of New Guinea
- Some bio males categorized as girls at birth, they have a labia and clitoris
- Puberty, genitals change due to increase of testosterone, testes descend, clit become penis
- Common in Sambia, accepted that some people men, some women and others females-then-males
- When culture had contact with other cultures, F-T-M judged as pathological form of GD
104
Q
Psychoanalytic Theory (Ovesey and Person 1973, Stoller 1973)
- What did Ovesey and Person (1973) emphasise?
- Describe the psychoanalytic theory
- What did Stoller (1973) investigate and find?
- What does this suggest about gender dysphoria?
A
- Ovesey and Person (1973) emphasise social relationships in family as cause of GD
- GD in bio males caused by boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety pre phallic stage (before gender identity established)
- Boy fantasises of symbiotic fusion with mother to relieve anxiety, danger separation removed
- Boy “becomes” mother, adopts woman gender identity
- Stoller (1973), interviews with GD bio males, had overly close relationships with mothers
- Suggests strong female identification thus conflicted gender identity in long term
105
Q
Evaluation for the Social Explanations for Gender Dysphoria
A
- Social constructionism
- Psychanalytic Theory (Rekers 1986)
- Different Outcomes (Drummond et al 2008)
106
Q
Social constructionism
A
- Strength, not all cultures have two genders, fa’afafine of Samoa recognise more than two genders
- Challenges traditional classifications of male and female
- Suggests cultural understanding beginning to “catch up” with lived experience of many
- Suggests gender identity and dysphoria best seen as social construction rather than biological fact
107
Q
Psychanalytic Theory (Rekers 1986)
A
- Limitation, issues with psychoanalytic theory of GD
- Does not provide account of GD in bio females, only applies to trans women
- Rekers (1986), GD in bio men more likely associated with absence of father rather than fear of separation from mother
- Suggests psychoanalytic theory does not provided compressive account of GD, incomplete
108
Q
Different Outcomes (Drummond et al 2008)
A
- Some who experience GD will decide to have gender reassignment surgery in the future
- However, proportion of people who experience early dysphoric feelings in childhood do not do so as adults
- Drummond et al (2008), 25 girls with GD, only 12% (3/25) had GD in follow up at ages of 24
- Suggests surgery before age of consent must be carefully managed with appropriate support and safeguards
- Many uncomfortable with idea that child receives hormone treatment that may cause permanent changes in their physicality’s
- However, some early medical intervention may be the only way to prevent depression and possible suicide in extreme cases
