Research Methods Flashcards
What is an Aim?
A general statement on what the researcher intends to investigate
What is a Hypothesis?
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the Relationship between the Variables to be investigated
What is a Directional Hypothesis?
A hypothesis that states the direction of the outcome of the experiment
What is a Non-Directional Hypothesis?
A hypothesis that doesn’t state the direction of the outcome of the experiment
What is Operationalisation?
Making variables measurable
What is the Independent Variable?
The variable which the researcher controls
What is the Dependent Variable?
The variable that will be affected by the Independent Variable. It is not controlled and is measured by the Researcher.
What is a Confounding Variable?
A variable which varies systematically with the Independent Variable meaning we don’t know what caused the change in the Dependent Variable
What is an Extraneous Variable?
A nuisance variable which does not vary systematically with the Dependent Variable
What are Demand Characteristics?
When participants are influenced by cues indicating the purpose of the experiment and change their behaviour
What is the Please-U Effect?
When a participant over-performs in an effort to please the experimenter
What is the Screw-U Effect?
When a participant under-performs in an effort to sabotage the study
What is Social Desirability Bias?
Where participants want to portray themselves in a positive light
What are Investigator Effects?
When the expectations of outcome by the researchers influence the participants’ behaviour or participant selection
What are Order Effects?
The order of the conditions having an effect on the participants’ behavior. e.g: The Practice Effect, The Fatigue Effect
What are Participant Variables?
The differing individual characteristics of participants in an experiment. They can be considered extraneous variables because they are variables that can influence the results of an experiment but that the experimenter is not studying. These can challenge the validity of a study by influencing the results. E.g: age, gender, mood, socioeconomic background
What is Randomisation?
The use of chance when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions. It involves randomising stimuli so the researcher is not in control of the order of stimuli or conditions
What does Randomisation control for?
Order Effects and Investigator Effects
What is Standardisation?
Putting participants subject to the same as possible environment, information and experience
What does Standardisation control for?
Investigator Effects and Demand Characteristics
What is Random Allocation?
The use of random selection in an Independent Groups design ensuring that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition than any other. Usually using a random number generator, assigning each participant a number and then using the generator to put them in a group.
What does Random Allocation control for?
Investigator Effects and Participant Variables
What is Counterbalancing?
Ensuring that half the participants complete Condition A followed by Condition B, whereas the other half complete B followed by A. It doesn’t remove order effects, it only balances them out between conditions.
What does Counterbalancing control for?
Order Effects
What is an Independent Groups design?
Participants are divided into 2 groups. One group does one condition and the other group does the other condition.
What are the Strengths of an Independent Groups design?
- Not affected by Demand Characteristics. - Not affected by Order Effects
What is a Repeated Measures design?
All participants complete the first condition and then the same participants complete the second condition
What are the Strengths of a Repeated Measures design?
- No participant variables. - Need fewer participants
What are the Weaknesses of a Repeated Measures design?
- More likely to be affected by Demand Characteristics. - Affected by Order Effects
What is a Matched Pairs design?
Participants are divided into 2 groups, one group does one condition and the second group does the other condition. However, each individual in group 1 is matched to a similar individual in group 2
What are the Strengths of a Matched Pairs design?
- Reduces Participant Variables. - Not affected by Order Effects. - Less likely to be affected by Demand Characteristics
What are the Weaknesses of a Matched Pairs design?
- Time Consuming and Expensive to organise. - Need twice as many participants
What is a Population?
Every person the researcher wants to be able to make statements about
What is a Sample?
A smaller number of people drawn from the population using a particular technique and in representative of that population
What is Random Sampling?
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
How is Random Sampling conducted?
1) Compile a list of all members of the target population. 2) Assign each one a number. 3) Use a random number generator to select participants and assign them conditions
What are the Strengths of Random Sampling?
- Usually fairly Representative as long as a big enough sample are selected. - No Researcher Bias as they have no influence over selection of participants, therefore they can’t choose people who may support their hypothesis
What are the Weaknesses of Random Sampling?
- It is Difficult and Time Consuming as a complete list of the target population is often difficult to obtain. - Just because someone is selected, doesn’t mean they are obliged to take part, therefore it usually ends up being a volunteer sample
What is Systemic Sampling
Every nth member of the target population is chosen
How is Systemic Sampling conducted?
1) Compile a list of all members of the target population. 2) Nominate a sampling system e.g: every 3rd person or every 5 houses
What are the Strengths of Systemic Sampling?
- No Researcher Bias as they have no influence over selection of participants, therefore they can’t choose people who may support their hypothesis. - Usually fairly Representative as long as a big enough sample are selected
What are the Weaknesses of Systemic Sampling?
- It is Difficult and Time Consuming as a complete list of the target population is often difficult to obtain. - Just because someone is selected, doesn’t mean they are obliged to take part, therefore it usually ends up being a volunteer sample
What is Stratified Sampling?
The composition of the sample reflects the proportion of subgroups within the target population
How is Stratified Sampling conducted?
1) The researcher identifies the strata that makes up the population. 2) Proportions are calculated to allow the sample to represent the population. 3) Random Sampling is then used for participants
What are the Strengths of Stratified Sampling?
- No Researcher Bias as they have no influence over selection of participants, therefore they can’t choose people who may support their hypothesis. - Highly Representative as it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population
What are the Weaknesses of Stratified Sampling?
- Just because someone is selected, doesn’t mean they are obliged to take part, therefore it usually ends up being a volunteer sample. - It does not reflect all of the ways that people are different, as stratification only occurs on one level (e.g: age)
What is Opportunity Sampling?
The researcher selects anyone who happens to be willing and able
How is Opportunity Sampling conducted?
1) The researcher will simply as anyone who is around at the time of the study
What are the Strengths of Opportunity Sampling?
- Involves minimal Effort, Time and Cost on the part of the researcher
What are the Weaknesses of Opportunity Sampling?
- Usually leads to a very Unrepresentative sample as it tends to be drawn from a small area. - At risk of researcher bias as they have complete control over who is selected
What is Volunteer Sampling?
A Self Selection method where participants select themselves
How is Volunteer Sampling conducted?
1) The researcher could put an ad in the local newspaper, or put up a poster in an appropriate place (e.g: a students union bar)
What are the Strengths of Volunteer Sampling?
- Involves minimal Effort, Time and Cost on the part of the researcher, as they simply wait for the participants to come to them
What are the Weaknesses of Volunteer Sampling?
- Is only going to attract a Certain Type of person (i.e: kind, helpful, curious) so the findings will have limited generalisability
What is an Unstructured Observation?
Involves the researcher writing down everything they see (e.g: a therapist observing interactions between a married couple during relationship therapy)
When is an Unstructured Observation appropriate?
When observations are Small in Scale and involve Few Participants
What are the Strengths of an Unstructured Observation?
- They produce Quantitive information which is rich in Detail
What are the Weaknesses of an Unstructured Observation?
- There is a risk of Observer Bias as observers record behaviours that ‘catch their eye’ rather than focusing on specific, predetermined behaviours
What is a Structured Observation?
Target behaviours (Behavioural Categories) are decided upon and only these are observed (e.g: only aggressive acts being recorded in a playground setting)
When is a Structured Observation appropriate?
In a Large-Scale observation where there is too much going on for the observer to be able to record
What are the Strengths of a Structured Observation?
- They make data Collection easier and more Systematic. - The data produced is Quantitative so it is easy to analyse
What are the Weaknesses of a Structured Observation?
- They may lack Detail, as only behaviours that are predetermined are recorded, potentially missing out other important behaviours
What are Behavioural Categories?
Examples of specific behaviours you would expect to see within the area you are researching (e.g: hitting, shouting, kicking)
What is Event Sampling?
Counting the Number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group
What are the Strengths of Event Sampling?
- Useful for Infrequent behaviours that could be missed in Time Sampling
What are the Weaknesses of Event Sampling?
- Could lead to Overlooked details of behaviour
What is Time Sampling?
Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame (e.g: observing for 20 mins, then having a 10 min break)
What are the Weaknesses of Time Sampling?
- Might be Unrepresentative of the observation
What are the Strengths of Time Sampling?
- Reduces the number of observations that need to be made
What are Questionnaires?
A pre-set list of written items (usually questions) to which a participant responds. Questions may be Open or Closed
What are the Strengths of Questionnaires?
- Low Cost. - Does not require the Researcher to be present. - Can be Distributed to large numbers of people
What are the Weaknesses of Questionnaires?
- Often elicits Untruthful Responses. - Subject to Response Bias. - Subject to Social Desirability Bias
What is a Likert Scale
The respondent indicates their Agreement (or otherwise) with a statement using a scale of usually 5 points e.g: Zombie films can have educational value. 1 = strongly disagree. 2 = disagree. 3 = neutral. 4 = agree. 5 = strongly agree
What is a Rating Scale?
Similar to a Likert Scale but the respondent identifies a value that represents their Strength of Feeling about a topic. e.g: How entertaining do you find Zombie Films?. (very entertaining) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (not at all entertaining)
What is Fixed Choice Option?
Includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them. e.g: For what reasons do you enjoy watching zombie films?. - education. - fear. - enjoyment. - comedy. - I don’t watch them
What is an Open Question?
There is no fixed range of answers and participants are free to respond in any way they wish. e.g: how would you describe your mood on an average day?
What are the Strengths of Open Questions?
- Rich in Detail and Depth
What are the Weaknesses of Open Questions?
- Difficult to Answer. - Difficult to Analyse
What is a Closed Question?
Offers a Fixed number of responses and participants are not free to respond in any way they wish. e.g: On a scale from 1-10, how would you rate your mood on an average day?
What are the Strengths of Closed Questions?
- Easy to Answer. - Easy to Analyse
What are the Weaknesses of Closed Questions?
- Lack in Detail and Depth
What is an Interview?
Usually involves a face-to-face (but could be conducted by phone) interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee
What is a Structured Interview?
Involves a predetermined set of questions. The interviewer asks the questions in real time and waits for a response
What are the Strengths of a Structured Interview?
- High Replicability between Participants and between Interviewers
What are the Weaknesses of a Structured Interview?
- No deviation may mean important details that arise are not examined
What is an Unstructured Interview?
It is more conversational as there are no set questions. The interviewee is encouraged to Elaborate on their answers where appropriate
What are the Strengths of an Unstructured Interview?
- Allows the interviewer to collect more information as important details emerge
What are the Weaknesses of an Unstructured Interview?
- Difficult to analyse
What is a Semi-Structured Interview?
A mixture of structured and unstructured interviews. There are a set of Predetermined questions but Elaboration and Follow up questions are likely
What should be considered when Designing a good interview?
- The Interview Schedule (list of questions) should be Standardised so there is less risk of interviewer bias. - Information should be recorded in note form by the interviewer or an audio recording can be made and listened to later. - One-to-one interviews should be conducted in a Quiet Setting away from other people to encourage openness and honesty. - The interviewee should be reminded that information they divulge is confidential, especially important in the case of sensitive material
What 5 things should be avoided in order to write good questions?
1) Overuse of Jargon. 2) Emotive Language. 3) Leading Questions.4) Double-Barreled Questions. 5) Double Negatives
What are Case Studies?
In-depth Investigation, Description and Analysis of an Individual, Event, Organisation or Group. They may involve the analysis of Unusual individuals or events or concentrate on more ‘typical’ cases. e.g: Genie the “Feral Child”. They will usually produce Qualitative data. Researchers will construct a Case History of the individual concerned, perhaps using interviews, observations, questionnaires or a combination of all of these. The person may be subject to experimental testing which may produce Quantitative data. Case Studies tend to take place over a long period of time (called Longitudinal) and may involve gathering additional information from family and friends as well as the person themselves
What are the Strengths of Case Studies?
- Detailed Insight into Unusual forms of behaviour. - Less Superficial than an experiment or questionnaire. - Help us to understand ‘Normal Functioning’. - Help generate hypotheses for future studies. - Solitary contradictory instance may lead to the Revision of an entire theory
What are the Weaknesses of Case Studies?
- Small Sample Sizes so issue with Generalising. - Information making it into the final report may be based on the subjective opinion of the researcher. - Personal accounts from the family, participant etc are prone to inaccuracy and mental decay
What is Correlation?
A correlation is plotted on a scattergram and tells us the Strength and Direction of a relationship between two or more co-variables (There is no IV or DV because we are just looking for patterns, and cause and effect relationships cannot be established
What are the Strengths of using Correlations from past studies to decide whether to conduct a study?
- A useful Preliminary tool. - It identifies possible patterns between variables before committing time and money to an experimental study. - Quick and Economical. - No need for a controlled environment or the manipulation of the IV. - Use of Secondary Data saves Time
What are the Weaknesses of using Correlations from past studies to decide whether to conduct a study?
- Not a Causal Relationship. - Can tell us how variables are related but not why. - We don’t know which co-variable caused the change. - Potential 3rd Variable not accounted for which causes a change in both of the co-variables
What is Content Analysis?
The process of studying the communications that a participant has produced by interpreting and coding textual and oral material. The aim is to summarise and describe the communication in a systemic way so overall conclusions can be drawn
How do you conduct Content Analysis?
1) Scan through the Material. 2) Decide Key Words for Behaviour Categories (Coding). 3) Tally up the words. 4) Pick out Reoccurring Themes
What are the Strengths of using Content Analysis?
- Produces both Qualitative and Quantitative date, depending on the research. - Researchers can get around Ethical Issues as it is Secondary data, they didn’t carry out the experiment themselves
What are the Strengths of using Content Analysis?
- People are studied Indirectly as part of content analysis, because the communication is analysed outside the Context within it occurred there is a lack of Detail and Insight. - May lack Objectivity, especially when more descriptive forms of thematic analysis are employed. However, modern analyses are often clear about their own biases
What is a Pilot Study?
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted
What is the aim of using a pilot study?
To identify any problems that might occur in the real experiment so they can be fixed/altered. This can save a researcher time and money
What is a Single-Blind procedure?
Participants are not told the aim of the research and/or which condition of the experiment they are receiving. Aims to control for Demand characteristics
What is a Double-Blind procedure?
Neither the participants nor the researcher who conducts the study is aware of the aims of the investigation
When do Ethical Issues arise?
When a conflict exists between the Rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce Authentic, Valid and Worthwhile data
What are the 4 main types of Ethical Issues?
1) Informed Consent. 2) Deception. 3) Protection from Harm. 4) Privacy and Confidentiality
What is Informed Consent?
Making participants aware of the aims of the research, procedure, their rights and what their data will be used for. Participants can then make an informed judgement as to whether they want to take part
How do you obtain Informed Consent?
A consent letter containing all relevant information. The participants agree then this is signed
Under what age of participants is parental consent required for them to take part
16
What are the other forms of consent other than Informed Consent?
1) Prior General Consent. 2) Presumptive Consent. 3) Retrospective Consent
What is Deception?
Deliberately Misleading or Withholding Information from the participants. If they are not given adequate information when they agree to take part, they can’t give Informed Consent
When can Deception be justified?
If it doesn’t cause participants undue distress
What is Protection from Harm?
Participants should not be put in any more risk than they would face in their daily lives. They should be protected from Physical and Psychological (embarrassed/stressed) harm
What is Debriefing?
After the study has taken place, the participants should be fully debriefed of the true aims of the investigation and any details not supplied during the study. Helps to deal with issues from Deception and Protection from Harm
What should Debriefing include?
- The true aims of the study. - What their data will be used for. - The opportunity to withdraw their data. - Reassurance that their behaviour was typical if concerned. - Possible follow up care, such as giving some participants counselling
What is Privacy?
Controlling Information about oneself
What is Confidentiality?
Our right to have any personal data protected
How can researchers deal with the ethical issue of Privacy and Confidentiality?
- If held, personal details should be protected. - Researchers often record no personal details, instead assigning each participant a number in case they choose to withdraw their data. - Remind the participants during briefing and debriefing that their data will be protected
What is Reliability?
The degree to which a psychological measure produces stable and consistent results
What are the two key ways of measuring Reliability?
1) The Test-Retest Method. 2) The Inter-Rater Method
When is the Test-Retest Method commonly applied?
When assessing the reliability of questionnaires, psychological tests (e.g: tests of personality or IQ) and interviews
How is the Test-Retest Method carried out?
The test is administered Twice and the results are compared. A Correlation Coefficient can be calculated.
What Correlation Coefficient indicates reliable results?
0.8
What is the challenge with time lapses between tests from the Test-Retest Method?
There must be sufficient time between tests to be sure that the participant is not simply recalling their previous responses but not too much time in case the attitude or ability being tested actually changes
What is Inter-Rater or Inter-Observer reliability?
Checking the consistency of ratings that two or more Independent researchers have completed.
How can you increase the Reliability of a Questionnaire?
- Unreliable, Ambiguous or Complex questions may be removed. - Sometimes replacing Open questions with Closed ones
How can you increase the Reliability of an Interview?
- Using the same Interviewer with all participants, or at least Training all the interviewer the same way to avoid Leading Questions. - Increasing how Structured the interview is
How can you increase the Reliability of an Experiment?
- Ensuring that Standardised Instructions and Procedures are used
What are the Weaknesses of an Independent Groups design?
- Need twice as many participants. - Differences between the participants could act as an extraneous variable
How can you increase the Reliability of an Observation?
- Careful Operationalisation and Explanation of the Behavioural Categories
What is Internal Validity?
Refers to whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the Independent Variable and not some other factor
What is External Validity?
The extent to which the conclusions from your research study can be generalized to the people outside of your study
What are the 2 types of Internal Validity?
1) Face. 2) Concurrent
What is Face Validity?
A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure
What is Concurrent Validity?
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure, comparing it to existing data, usually by calculating the correlation coefficient
What are the 3 types of External Validity?
1) Ecological. 2) Population. 3) Temporal
What is Ecological Validity?
The extent to which findings from a research study can be Generalised to other Settings. It considers both the Setting and the Task. An experiment that has high Mundane Realism will have high Ecological Validity
What is Population Validity?
Whether your sample is Representative of the population. You want a diverse sample containing people of different age, ethnicity, socio-economic status etc
What is Temporal Validity?
The extent to which findings can be Generalised to other Historical times and Eras e.g: Asch experiments, filter theory
How can you increase the Validity of a Questionnaire?
- Include a Lie Scale within questions to assess consistency of participant’s responses and to control for the effects of social desirability bias
How can you increase the Validity of Experimental Research?
- Use of a Control Group to assess whether changes were due to the effect of the independent variable. - The use of Single or Double-Blind procedures. - Standardised procedures to minimise the impact of Participant Reactivity and Investigator Effects
How can you increase the Validity of an Observation?
- The researcher should remain undetected, as in a Covert observation, so that the participants act naturally. - Ensure Behavioural Categories are not too Broad, Overlapping or Ambiguous
How can you increase the Validity of Qualitative Methods?
- Inclusion of Direct Quotes. - Improve the Coherence of the researcher’s Reporting. - Triangulation
What is Triangulation?
Using a number of different sources as evidence (e.g: interviews, diaries, observations)
What is an Abstract in a journal?
A short Summary at the beginning of a journal of the aims, hypotheses, method, results and conclusions. ~150 words.
What is the Introduction in a journal?
Several studies summarised leading logically to the aim and hypothesis of the research
What is the Method in a journal?
It should include sufficient detail so that other researchers are able to precisely replicate the study if they wish
What should the Method in a journal include?
1) Experimental Design. 2) Sample. 3) Apparatus. 4) Procedure. 5) Ethics
What should the Results in a journal include?
Descriptive statistics (e.g: tables and graphs). Inferential statistics: A statement about whether the hypothesis is accepted with reference to the calculated and critical values
What is the Discussion in a journal?.
The results are explained verbally (rather than statistically). The limitations of the study, future suggestions and wider implications are all discussed
What should the Referencing in a journal include?
Full details of any Source Material that the researcher drew upon or cited in the report. It may include journal articles, books, websites etc
What is Quantitative Data?
Data that is expressed numerically
What is Qualitative Data?
Data that is expressed in words
What are the Strengths of using Quantitative Data?
- Simple to Analyse. - Easy to Compare. - Less open to Bias
What are the Weaknesses of using Quantitative Data?
- Less Meaningful. - May fail to Represent Real Life
What are the Strengths of using Qualitative Data?
- Rich in Detail. - Participants have more opportunity to develop thoughts and feelings
What are the Weaknesses of using Qualitative Data?
- Difficult to Analyse and Summarise. - Can be Subjective
What are the 3 Measures of Central Tendency
1) Mean. 2) Mode. 3) Median
What is the Mode?
The most Frequently Occurring score within a data set
What are the Strengths of using the Mode?
- Very easy to Calculate
What are the Weaknesses of using the Mode?
- It is rarely Representative of the data as a whole
What is the Median?
The Middle Value in a set of scores when arranged from Lowest to Highest. When there is an even number of scores the 2 middle scores are averaged
What are the Strengths of using the Median?
- Anomalous scores don’t affect it. - Easy to Calculate
What are the Weaknesses of using the Median?
- Less Sensitive as not all values are included in the final calculation
What is the Mean?
Calculated by adding up the scores in a set of data and dividing them by the total number of scores
What are the Strengths of using the Mean?
- It is the most Sensitive of the measures of central tendency as it Includes all of the scores in the data set, therefore making it more representative of the data as a whole
What are the Weaknesses of using the Mean?
- Can be distorted by Anomalous values
What are the 2 Measures of Dispersion?
1) Range. 2) Standard Deviation
What is the Range?
Taking the Lowest value from the Highest value and Adding 1 (to account for scores that have been rounded up)
What are the Strengths of using the Range?
- Easy to Calculate
What are the Weaknesses of using the Range?
- Only takes Extreme values into account so therefore may not be Representative of the entire data set
What is Standard Deviation?
A more sophisticated measure of dispersion than the range. It tells us how far a score Deviates from the Mean. A Higher score indicates a Greater spread of data whereas a Lower score indicates the scores are tightly clustered around the mean
What are the Strengths of using Standard Deviation?
- This is a much more Precise measure of Dispersion, as it includes all values in the final calculation
What are the Weaknesses of using Standard Deviation?
- There is still a risk of it being affected by an Extreme value
When are Bar Charts used for data?
When data is discrete (i.e: it can be divided into categories)
When are Histograms used for data?
When data is Continuous and the X axis is made up of Equal Size Intervals of a single category. The Y axis represents a Frequency
When are Line Graphs used for data?
When data is Continuous and the points are connected to show how something changes in value
When are Scattergrams used for data?
To depict the relationship between 2 Co-Variables. It does not matter which co-variable goes on which axis
What is Normal Distribution on a Graph?
A Symmetrical bell-shaped curve in which Most scores occupy the middle area and the Mean, Mode and Median are all at the Same Central Point
What is Positively Skewed Distribution on a Graph?
When Most of the distribution is concentrated on the Left
What is Negatively Skewed Distribution on a Graph?
When Most of the distribution is concentrated on the Right
What is the Probability of Significance in psychology?
5% - written as p≤0.05
What is a Type 1 Error in psychology?
A False Positive result, the null hypothesis has been rejected when it should have been accepted
What is a Type 2 Error in psychology?
A False Negative result, the null hypothesis has been accepted when it should have been rejected
What is Nominal data?
Discrete data is represented in Categorical form e.g: a table showing how many boys and girls each choose to do either an apprenticeship or a degree
What is Ordinal data?
Data is Ordered in some way. Commonly rating scales are used e.g: on a scale from 1-5, rate how much you enjoy psychology. It is not a scale of Equal Measure (i.e: someone who scored 4 does not love psychology twice as much as someone who scored 2) and it is based on Subjective Opinion rather than objective measures and raw scores are converted to Ranks
What is Interval data?
Data based on Numerical Scales which include units of equal, precisely defined size.. e.g: a histogram showing the height data for a class
What are the 8 Statistical Tests?
1) Chi Squared. 2) Sign Test. 3) Mann-Whitney. 4) Wilcoxen t. 5) Spearman’s Rho. 6) Unrelated t-test. 7) Related t-test. 8) Pearson’s r
What is a good acronym for the 9 Statistical Tests?
Carrots Should Come Mashed With Swede Under Roast Potatoes
What are Parametric Tests?
The most Robust, Valid and Powerful tests
What are the 3 Parametric Tests?
1) Unrelated t-test. 2) Related t-test. 3) Pearson’s r
What are the Conditions of Use for a Sign Test?
- Test of Difference. - Related Groups design. - Data can be converted into a Nominal form
How do you Calculate a Sign Test?
1) State the Hypothesis. 2) Convert the data into a Nominal form so it can be analysed. 3) Record the data in a table and work out the Sign of Difference for each participant. 4) Work out the Calculated Value (S) - the least frequent sign (ignoring any equal values). 5) Find the Critical Value of S. N = Total number of scores (ignoring any equal values). Work out whether the test is one-tailed or two-tailed. Probability is usually 0.05. Use the table provided to find the Critical Value. 6) Is the result Significant?. If the Calculated Value is Equal to or Less Than the Critical Value our result is Significant
When is a test One-Tailed?
When the Hypothesis is Directional
When is a test Two-Tailed?
When the Hypothesis is Non-Directional
What is the rule for Significance in Statistical Tests?
If the test has an ‘R’ in it’s name the Calculated Value has to be moRe than the Critical Value
What did philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1962) suggest about psychology?
That is is a ‘Pre-Science’ rather than a ‘Natural Science’ like biology or physics because there was too much internal disagreement and too many conflicting approaches
What is a Paradigm Shift?
A Revolution in scientific thinking where a new understanding is accepted e.g: the change from Newtonian to Einsteinian theory of relativity
What did philosopher Karl Popper (1934) say about Falsifiability in science?
For a theory to be considered Scientific it needed to have Falsifiability. Good sciences are those where theories are constantly challenged and Pseudosciences are those which can’t be falsified (e.g: religion). The more a theory survives an attempt to falsify it, the Stronger it is
What is Empiricism?
Data collection that has been collected through direct Sensory experience and not through Hearsay
TRUE or FALSE: The more Control a research method has, the Greater the Objectivity
TRUE
What is an example of the Implications of Psychological Research on the Economy?
Absence from work costs the economy an estimated £15 Billion a year. A third of all absences are caused by disorders such as anxiety, depression and stress. Psychological research into the causes and treatments of mental illness means that in many cases, sufferers are able to manage their condition effectively and return to work, benefiting the economy
What is the most common way Psychological Research is published?
Academic Journals
What are the 3 Aims of using Peer Review in the scientific process?
1) To allocate Research Funding. 2) To validate the Quality of research. 3) To suggest Improvements
Who conducts Peer Review?
A small group of usually 2-3 experts in the particular field. They should be objective and unknown to the author or researcher
What is the Benefit of Anonymity in Peer Review?
It is likely that it will produce a more honest appraisal
What is the Weakness of Anonymity in Peer Review?
A minority of reviewers may use their anonymity as a way of criticising Rival Researchers. Many researchers are in direct Competition for limited Funding and so may try to sabotage others. For this reason, some journals favour a system of Open Reviewing whereby the names of the reviewer(s) are made public
What is the issue with Publication Bias in psychological research?
- Editors of journals want to publish Significant ‘headline grabbing’ findings to increase the Credibility and Circulation of their publication. - They also prefer to publish Positive results. This could mean that research that doesn’t fit this criteria is ignored or disregarded. - Ultimately this creates a false impression of the current state of psychology if journal editors are being selective in what they publish
What is the issue with Burying Ground-Breaking Research in Peer Review?
- The Peer Review process may suppress Opposition to Mainstream theories, wishing to maintain the status quo within particular scientific fields. - Reviewers tend to be much more Critical of research that contradicts their own view and much more Favourable to that which matches it. - Established scientists are much more likely to be chosen as Reviewers and as a result, findings that chime with current opinions are more likely to be passed than new and innovative research that challenges the established order. - Thus, Peer Review may have the effect of Slowing down the Rate of Change within a particular scientific discipline
C.A.N.D.I
Chi-Squared, Association, Nominal Data, Difference, Independent Groups
Can us this test to identify a test of difference in nominal data with independent groups. In nominal data you can only be part of one category.
Degrees of freedom (DF’s) = number of columns - 1 x number of rows -
M.I.D.O
Mann-Whitney, Independent groups, Difference, Ordinal Data
U.N.I.I.T.D
Unrelated T-test, Independent groups, Interval, T-test, Difference
D.I.R.R.T
Difference, Interval, Repeat mesures, Related, T-test
W.O.R.D
Wilcoxon, Ordinal Data, Repeat measures, Difference
C.I.P
Corelation, Interval, Pertersons’
Correlation
. Not looking for a difference . 2 co-existing variables
. No cause and effect
. Establish correlation
C.O.S
Correlational, Ordinal Data, Spearmans’ rank
F.H.P.O.T.T.E.R
Falseifiable, Hypothesis, Paradigm and Paradigm shift, Objective, Testing, Theory construction, Empirical, Replicable
