Forensic Psychology

Question 1

The Problems in Defining Crime

Answer 1

Culture (where). Historical Context (when). Age (who).

Question 2

Culture as a problem in defining crime

Answer 2

What is considered a crime in one culture may not be considered a crime in another. For example, in the UK it is illegal to have more than 1 wife, whereas in the Philippines this is legal.

Question 3

Historical context as a problem in defining crime

Answer 3

What is considered a crime at 1 point in time may not be considered to be a crime at another. For example homosexuality in the UK is now legal whereas prior to 1967 it was an illegal offence.

Question 4

Age as a problem in defining crime

Answer 4

At what age are people responsible for criminal actions? For example a 2 year old child should not be prosecuted for picking up a packet of sweets and walking out of a shop without paying for them. In the UK the age of criminal responsibility is 10 years.

Question 5

Ways of measuring crime

Answer 5

Official Statistics. Victim Surveys. Offender Surveys.

Question 6

Official Statistics

Answer 6

Government records of the total no. of crimes reported to police and recorded in the official figures. These are published by the home office every year. Allows the govt to develop crime prevention strategies and policing initiatives as well as to direct resources to those areas most in need. Officially recorded crime is affected by police recording rules which can vary between police forces.

Question 7

Reasons why crimes are not reported

Answer 7

There is no victim. Too trivial. Can’t be bothered to. Mistrust police. Perpetrator is friend/family.

Question 8

Reasons why crimes are not recorded.

Answer 8

Insufficient time. Crime too trivial. Not a priority. Victim withdraws charge. Lack of evidence. police recording rules.

Question 9

Research on recording crime

Answer 9

Farrington and Dowds 1985 - Found that Nottinghamshire police were more likely to record thefts of less than £10 value in contrast to Staffordshire and Leicestershire police forces.

Question 10

Victim Surveys

Answer 10

Record people’s experience of crime over a specific period. The Crime Survey for England and Wales asks people to document the crimes they have been a victim of in the past year. Each person is interviewed using a fixed set of questions. 50,000 households are randomly selected. Published on an annual basis.

Question 11

Offender surveys

Answer 11

Involves individuals volunteering the details of the no. and types of crimes they have committed. These tend to target specific groups of likely offenders based on ‘risk’ factors such as previous convictions, age social background etc. The Offender Crime and Justice Survey which ran from 2003-6 was the 1st national self-report offender survey in the UK. As well as measuring offending, it looked at indicators of repeat offending, trends in offending, role of co-offenders. The OCJS involved interviewing 10-25 year olds about anti-social behaviour and drug use in a longitudinal study.

Question 12

Evaluation of Official Statistics

Answer 12

Practical Application - Allows govt to direct resources to tackling specific crime in certain areas. Not reliable figures - Only shows those crimes that are recorded, People may not report crimes.

Question 13

Evaluation of Victim Surveys

Answer 13

Reliance on memory - as seen in memory topic, EWT is not very accurate. More Accurate than official statistics - Highlights crimes that are not reported to the police.

Question 14

Evaluation of Offender Surveys

Answer 14

How many people - Offer insight into the no. of people responsible for certain offences as a small group or single individual may have committed many crimes. Unreliable - Individuals may conceal crimes they have committed or exaggerate them for bravado. Targeted nature of the survey means that types of crimes such as burglary are over represented as opposed to corporate crime such as fraud.

Question 15

Offender profiling

Answer 15

A method of working out the characteristics of an offender by examining the characteristics of the crime and crime scene. Aim is to generate hypotheses about the probable characteristics of an offender.

Question 16

The different approaches to offender profiling

Answer 16

UK = Bottom up US = Top down.

Question 17

The Top-down Approach

Answer 17

Concerns matching what is known about the offence and offender to a pre-existing template. Originated in the US as a result of the FBI’s interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial-killers. Offenders are classified in one of two categories.

Question 18

Categories of the top-down approach.

Answer 18

Organised. Disorganised.Based on the idea that serious offenders have a certain modus operandi which correlate with a particular set of social and psychological characteristics that relate to the individual.

Question 19

Crime Scene Characteristics of an Organised offender

Answer 19

Evidence of planning. Victim is a stranger. Controlled conversation. Use of restraints. Removes weapon from the scene. Body is hidden.

Question 20

Likely personality and behaviour of an Organised Offender

Answer 20

Average to high intelligence. Socially competent. Skilled employment. Sexually competent. Living with partner.

Question 21

Crime Scene Characteristics of an Disorganised offender

Answer 21

Little to no evidence of planning. Victim is known. Little conversation. Leaves evidence - blood, semen etc. Little use of restraint. Body in open view.

Question 22

Likely personality and behaviour of a Disorganised offender.

Answer 22

Below average intelligence. Socially inadequate. Unskilled employment. Sexually incompetent. Lives alone and close to crime scene.

Question 23

4 main stages to constructing an FBI Profile

Answer 23

Data Assimilation - Profiler reviews evidence. Crime scene classification. Crime reconstruction - hypotheses in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of the victim etc. Profile generation - hypotheses related to the likely offender.

Question 24

Research on Top-Down Approach

Answer 24

Canter 2004. Used info from 100 murders by 100 Serial Killers in the USA. Statistical technique ‘smallest space analysis’ was used to test for the co-occurrence of the 39 variables that distinguish between organised and disorganised. Found that organised characteristics were typical of most serial killers. Disorganised characteristics were much rarer and not frequent enough to be considered a type.

Question 25

Evaluation of Top-down Approach

Answer 25

Evidence of Canter 2004 contradicts ‘disorganised offender’. Only applies to certain crimes such as torture and rape. Whilst these are high priority, they are not frequent. Scherer and Jarvis 2014 - It has other benefits such as opening up new avenues for police. Subjective in classifying crime scenes. Not enough categories.

Question 26

The Bottom-Up Approach

Answer 26

Aim is to generate a picture of the offender - their likely characteristics, behaviour and social background. Done through systematic analysis of evidence at the crime scene. The profile is data driven. Does not begin with fixed typologies.

Question 27

Investigative Psychology

Answer 27

Smallest Space Analysis. Interpersonal Coherence. Forensic Awareness.

Question 28

Smallest space analysis

Answer 28

A computer program that identifies correlations across patterns of crime scenes. Uses data bases for details of crimes, for example the MO, location etc. Specific details of an offence can then be matched against the database.

Question 29

Interpersonal Coherence

Answer 29

Central to the bottom-up approach. This is the way the offender behaves at the scene, including how they interact with the victim. May reflect their behaviour in more everyday situations. For example, whilst some rapists want to maintain maximum control and humiliate their victims, others are more apologetic.

Question 30

Forensic Awareness

Answer 30

Describes those individuals who have been the subject of police interrogation before. Their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks.

Question 31

Research on Investigative Psychology

Answer 31

Canter and Heritage (1990). Content analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. Data examines using Smallest space analysis. Several characteristics were identified as common in most cases, such as use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim. This can help establish whether 2 or more offences were committed by the same person.

Question 32

Research into accuracy of Profiles

Answer 32

Pinizzotto and Finkel 1990. Compared 5 groups of people’s ability to write a profile of a murder and sex offence. Expert profilers were most accurate at producing profiles of the sex offender. However, detectives with no profiling experience were more accurate in profiling the murderer.

Question 33

Geographical Profiling

Answer 33

Canter proposed that people do no just reveal themselves through the crimes they commit but also the locations they choose. Concerned with where rather than who. Offenders are more likely to commit a crime close to their house or where they habitually travel to because they now the area best. Analyses the locations of a connected serie of crimes and considers where the crimes were committed, the spatial relationships between different scenes and how they may relate to the offenders home.

Question 34

Geographical Profiling - Circle Theory

Answer 34

Canter and Larkin 1993 proposed that most offenders have a spatial mindset, they commit their crimes within a kind of imagined circle. There are Marauders and Commuters.

Question 35

Marauder

Answer 35

The Offender’s home is within the geographical area in which the crimes are committed.

Question 36

Commuter

Answer 36

The offender travels to another area and commits crimes within a defined space (circle).

Question 37

Research on Geographical Profiling

Answer 37

Lundrigan and Canter 2011. Found that the offenders home was geographically central in the pattern. The location of each body disposal site tended to be different each time. This effect was most evident for offenders who travelled short distances.

Question 38

Criminal Geographic Targeting

Answer 38

Computerised system developed by Rossmo and Rossmo’s formula. The formula produces a 3D map displaying spatial data related to time, distance and movement to and from crime scenes. The map is called a jeopardy surface and indicates where the offender is likely to strike next

Question 39

Evaluation of bottom-up approach

Answer 39

More objective and scientific than the top down approach. Geographic profiling can help to narrow down search areas. However, geographic profiling cannot distinguish between multiple offenders in the same area. Human error could occur when inputting data to databases. Rachel Nickell Murder highlights over reliance on profilers being dangerous.

Question 40

Bio Explanation - Atavistic Form

Answer 40

Lombroso (1876) proposed that offenders were a biologically distinct group of people exhibiting primitive characteristics. They were a separate species whose features enabled them to survive in the wild, but made them ill suited to civilised society. Criinals are born not made.

Question 41

Lombroso’s criminal characteristics

Answer 41

Large Jaws. Narrow sloping brow. High cheekbones. Large Ears. Extra Nipples. Dark Skin.

Question 42

Lombroso’s Head Shape/Facial Features Theory

Answer 42

Argued that the shape of the head and the facial features determined the criminal type. For example, a murderer would have long ears and fleshy lips whilst a fraudster would have thin lips.

Question 43

Research on Atavistic Form

Answer 43

Lombroso based his theory on survey data of criminal heads and bodies. Sampled the proportions of 383 skulls of dead criminals and the heads of 3,800 living criminals. Concluded that approximately 40% of crimes could be attributed to the atavistic form.

Question 44

Evaluation of Atavistic form

Answer 44

Contradictory Research of Goring 1913.- Criminal Characteristics can lead to prejudices, especially the ‘dark skin’ characteristic which could be used to justify racial persecution. Deterministic - If you are born with these characteristics you will be a criminal.

Question 45

Goring (1913)

Answer 45

Compared 3,000 convicts with a group of non-convicts, Found no differences except for the fact that convicts were slightly smaller.

Question 46

Bio Explanation - Genetic

Answer 46

The idea that one or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour.

Question 47

Twin Studies into Criminality

Answer 47

Lange 1929 - Found concordance rates of 77% for MZ twins and 12% for DZ twins, suggesting a partly genetic explanation. Christianson (1977) - Found concordance rates of 33% for MZ twins and 12% for DZ twins.

Question 48

Research into Candidate Genes

Answer 48

Tihonen (2014) - A genetic analysis of 900 offenders. Revealed abnormalities on 2 genes that may be associated with violent crime: MAOA gene, which controls dopamine and serotonin in the brain and has been linked with aggressive acts. CDH13 gene which has been linked to substance abuse and attention deficit disorder. Estimated that 5-10% of all violent crime in Finland is due to abnormalities with these 2 genes. Those who had both gene abnormalities were 13X more likely to engage in violent crimes

Question 49

Diathesis Stress Model

Answer 49

A tendency towards criminal behaviour may come about through the combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological triggers. For example being raised in a dysfunctional environment or having criminal role models.

Question 50

Evaluation of Genetic Explanation

Answer 50

Application - For people with genetic vulnerability, efforts must be made to keep them away from the ‘trigger’. Candidate Genes - Too simplistic to suggest that the 2 genes alone cause violent behavior. Biologically Deterministic - If you have these genes you are likely to commit violent crime.

Question 51

Bio Explanations - Neural

Answer 51

There may be neural differences in the brains of criminals and non-criminals. Much of the research investigates those with Antisocial personality disorder (APD), which is associated with reduced emotional responses, lack of empathy for others and is a characteristic of many convicted criminals.

Question 52

Research on Neural Explanations

Answer 52

Raine et al (2000) - The volume of prefrontal grey and white matter (the part that regulates emotional behaviour) was measured using MRI in 21 people with APD and controls. There was a reduced volume of grey matter in the prefrontal area for the APD group. Autonomic activity was also measured in response to a stressful situation during which participants had to give a videotaped speech about their faults. Autonomic measures were heart rate and skin conductance. APD group showed reduced autonomic responses during stressful situation.

Question 53

Evaluation of Neural Explanation

Answer 53

The criminality may cause these neural differences rather than the other way around as the brain is plastic. Application - The prefrontal lobe develops late and thus teenagers need extra support to prevent them committing crimes. Scientific - Credibility to psychology as a science.

Question 54

Psy Explanations - Eysenck’s Criminal Personality

Answer 54

Theory of personality based on the idea that character traits such as moodiness or talkativeness tend to cluster along 3 dimensions.

Question 55

Eysenck’s Criminal Personality Dimensions

Answer 55

Extroversion - Introversion. Neuroticism - Stability. Psychoticism - Normality.

Question 56

Extroversion - Introversion Dimension

Answer 56

Extroverts are characterised as outgoing, having positive emotions but possibly being bored easily. Introverts tend to be focused more on internal thoughts, feelings and moods rather than seeking out external stimulation, tend to be more quiet, reserved, and introspective.

Question 57

Neuroticism - Stability Dimension

Answer 57

Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotional states such as anger, anxiety and depression, rather than positive emotional states. Stability refers to a person’s ability to remain emotionally balanced and stable.

Question 58

Psychoticism - Normality Dimension

Answer 58

Psychotics are egocentric, aggressive, impulsive, impersonal, lacking in empathy and generally not concerned about the welfare of others.

Question 59

Eysenck’s Biological Basis

Answer 59

Suggested that each trait has a biological basis which is mainly innate. Claimed that 67% of the variance for the traits is due to genetic factors. Argued that we inherit our nervous systems from our parents and our nervous systems influence the type of personality we have.

Question 60

Biological Basis of Extroversion.

Answer 60

Extroversion is determined by the overall level of arousal in a person’s nervous system. A person who is under-aroused requires more stimulation, whereas an over-aroused person does not require this. Extroverts seek external stimulation to increase their cortical arousal. This may lead to offending because they seek excitement and may engage in risk taking behaviour more often.

Question 61

Biological Basis of Neuroticism

Answer 61

Neuroticism is determined by the level of stability in the sympathetic nervous system - how much a person responds in situations of threat. A neurotic person is someone who is slightly unstable and reacts/gets easily upset quickly. People with his characteristic are often unpredictable and associated with criminal behaviour.

Question 62

Biological Basis of Psychoticism

Answer 62

Psychoticism has been related to higher levels of testosterone which means that men are more likely to be found at this end of the spectrum. Could explain why men commit more crimes than women.

Question 63

Eysenck’s Theory - Role of Socialisation

Answer 63

Theory that people with high E and N scores have nervous systems that make them difficult to condition. As a result they won’t learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses and anxiety. Consequently they will be more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presents.

Question 64

Measuring Criminal Personality

Answer 64

Eysenck proposed that these personality dimensions were measurable using a personality questionnaire, The Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). The EPI consists of a large no. of questions to which respondents must answer either yes or no. The total no. of yes and no answers to certain questions reveals an E score, an N score and a P score.

Question 65

Examples of Questions from the EPI

Answer 65

Do you worry too long after an embarrassing experience? Are you rather lively? Do you find it hard to fall asleep at night? Do you like working alone?

Question 66

Research on Eysenck’s Criminal Personality

Answer 66

McGurk and McDougall (1981) - 100 Students defines as ‘delinquent’ and 100 control students who were not delinquent completed the EPI and their E and N scores were calculated. Found significant differences in scores on all 3 dimensions. The delinquent group had a combination of high P, E and N scores.

Question 67

Evaluation of Eysenck’s Criminal Personality

Answer 67

Biological basis lacks any evidence. Assumes personality is consistent and doesn’t change. If it is biological, where does responsibility for behaviour lie? Personality tests may be unreliable as people may answer for social desirability. Research support of McGurk and McDougall 1981. Introverts maybe commit less violent crimes such as fraud.

Question 68

Psy (cognitive) Explanations - Kohlberg’s Level of Moral Reasoning

Answer 68

Applied the concept of moral reasoning to criminal behaviour. Kohlberg proposed that people’s decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral development. The higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning. Theory based off people’s responses to a series of moral dilemmas.

Question 69

Levels of Moral Reasoning

Answer 69

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality. Level 2 - Conventional Morality. Level 3 - Post-conventional morality

Question 70

Level 1

Answer 70

Stage 1 - Punishment orientation: rules are obeyed to avoid punishment. Stage 2 - Instrumental orientation/personal gain: Rules are obeyed for personal gain. People operating at level 1 are most likely to commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards.

Question 71

Level 2

Answer 71

Stage 3 - ‘Good boy’ orientation: Rules obeyed for approval. Stage 4 - Maintenance of the social order: Rules obeyed to maintain social order. People operating at this level commit crime due to influence of others or to maintain relationships.

Question 72

Level 3

Answer 72

Stage 5 - Morality of contract and individual rights: Rules obeyed if they are impartial, democratic rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others. Stage 6 - Morality of conscience: The individual establishes his own rules in accordance with a personal set of ethical principles. People operating at his level commit crime as they operate on their own moral codes.

Question 73

Kohlberg’s model of criminality

Answer 73

Criminal offenders are most likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level (level 1). Non-criminals tend to have progressed to levels 2 and 3. The pre-conventional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain reward, and is associated with less mature, childlike reasoning.

Question 74

Research on level of moral reasoning

Answer 74

Hollin (1998) - Compared moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders. Used the Socio-Moral Reflection Measure-Short Form (SRM-SF) which contains 11 moral dilemma questions. The delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquent group. - Supports Kohlberg.

Question 75

Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Theory

Answer 75

Research Support of Hollin 1998. Other factors - The theory jumps from moral reasoning to offending. Economy - It would be expensive to rehabilitate offenders to change their level of moral reasoning. Application - Encourage people from an early age to consider the views of others, thinking beyond themselves.

Question 76

Psy (cognitive) Explanations - Cognitive Distortions

Answer 76

Forms of Irrational thinking. Ways that reality has been twisted so that what is perceived no longer represents reality.

Question 77

Examples of Cognitive Distortions

Answer 77

Hostile Attribution bias. Minimalisation.

Question 78

Hostile Attribution Bias

Answer 78

Misinterpretation of ambiguous situations as hostile situations. Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues, triggering a disproportionately violent response. For example someone accidentally bumping into someone in a pub = FIGHT.

Question 79

Research on Hostile Attribution Bias - Schonenburg and Justye (2014)

Answer 79

Presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally stable expressions. Compared with the control group, they were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile.

Question 80

Research on Hostile Attribution Bias - Dodge and Frame (1982)

Answer 80

Children were read five stories in which same sex peers caused an act of instrumental aggression but intention is ambiguous. neither clearly hostile nor clearly accidental. Children asked a series of questions about intent andretaliation and punishment. Findings: aggressive boys responds contained attributions of hostile intent

Question 81

Minimalisation

Answer 81

Downplaying the seriousness of the crime for the victim/society. For example a burglar may minimise the seriousness of their offence by describing themselves as providing for their family. Studies suggest that individuals who commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimalisation.

Question 82

Research on Minimalisation

Answer 82

Barbaree (1991) - Found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all, whilst 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim.

Question 83

Evaluation of Cognitive Distortions

Answer 83

Application - CBT encourages Sex offenders to face up to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions, reduced incidences of denial and minimalisation in therapy is highly correlated with reduced risk of reoffending. No explanation for why people experience distortions. Hard to measure cognition, instead it is based off inferences which are less accurate.

Question 84

Psy Explanations - Differential Association Theory

Answer 84

Sutherland (1939) proposed this theory, suggesting that offending behaviour can be explained entirely in terms of social learning. Suggests people are socialised into a life of crime. People vary in the frequency in which they associate with others who have more or less favourable attitudes to crime, and these attitudes influence their own attitudes and behaviour.

Question 85

Differential Association Theory - What is Learnt?

Answer 85

A child learns attitude towards crime. A potential criminal is someone who has learned pro criminal attitudes from those around them. Children will learn which particular types of crime are acceptable within their community and also desirable. For example they may learn that burglary is acceptable within their community but violent crime is not. For example they may learn that burglary is acceptable within their community but violent crime is not.

Question 86

Differential Association Theory - Who is it learnt from?

Answer 86

Intimate personal groups such as family and/or peer group. Also learnt from the wider neighbourhood/community. The degree to which the local community supports or opposes criminal involvement determines the differences in crime rates from one area to another. The individuals/social groups may not be criminals themselves, but they may still hold deviant attitudes or an acceptance of such attitudes.

Question 87

Differential Association Theory - How is it Learnt?

Answer 87

Sutherland suggested that the frequency, length and personal meaning of such associations will determine the degree of influence. Did not specify the actual mode of learning. Likely to be both direct and indirect operant conditioning, involving role models.

Question 88

Research on Differential Association Theory

Answer 88

Farrington (2006) - Group of 411 working class boys and their families were studied from same area of London from the age of 8 in 1961, to the age of 50. Researchers recorded details of family background, parenting styles and school behaviour. Also recorded the rate and type of convictions at various points. Found that 41% of the sample had criminal convictions between the ages of 10-50. At age 17, 50% of convictions were attributable to a hardcore 5% of the sample. Key risk factors - Family criminality, poverty, poor parenting, risk taking and low school achievement. Conclusion - Criminality develops in a context of inappropriate role models and dysfunctional systems of reward and punishment.

Question 89

Evaluation of Differential Association Theory

Answer 89

Partial Explanation - Confined to smaller crimes such as burglary rather than rape or murder. Application - Prisons for youths would simply be Schools of crime and thus should be a last resort. Application - Don’t allow criminals to bring up children. Responsibility for crime - Where does it lie? With the community? Research Support - Farrington 2006.

Question 90

Psy Explanation - Psychodynamic

Answer 90

Offending can be explained by the idea that offenders have an inadequate Superego

Question 91

The Inadequate Superego

Answer 91

The superego (conscience) is developed through identification with the same sex parent in the phallic stage as a resolution of the oedipus/electra complex. Freudian Theory predicts that offending behaviour is due to an imbalance between the 3 components of the personality, the id is not sufficiently controlled by the superego.

Question 92

Blackburn (1993) - 3 Types of Superego that Result in Criminality

Answer 92

Weak Superego - Child has not identified and therefore has no moral code. Deviant Superego - Child has identified with an immoral parent. Over-harsh Superego - Child misbehaves to fulfil unconscious desire for punishment because they are crippled by overwhelming guilt and anxiety.

Question 93

Maternal Deprivation and Criminality

Answer 93

Deprivation of a continuous and loving relationship with the mother in the first 2 years of a child’s life results in irreversible damaging consequences such as delinquency, affectionless psychopathy and retardation. This fits in with criminal characteristics and may explain offending.

Question 94

Research on maternal deprivation

Answer 94

Bowlby (1944) - 44 criminal teenagers were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy (lack of affection, lack of guilt, lack of empathy). Their families were also interviewed in order to establish whether deprivation had taken place. Found that 14/44 could be described as affectionless psychopaths. 12 out of this group of 14 had experienced deprivation.

Question 95

Evaluation of Psychodynamic Explanations

Answer 95

Contradictory Evidence - There is little evidence that children raised without a same-sex parent are less law-abiding as adults, contradicting Blackburn’s argument. Genetics? - It could be that children who are raised by deviant parents are offenders themselves due to genetics rather than identification. Application - Don’t allow criminal parents to raise children or adopt. Application - More intervention and support for families where there is just 1 parent.

Question 96

Dealing with Offending Behaviour

Answer 96

Custodial Sentencing. Behaviour Modification. Anger Management. Restorative Justice Programmes

Question 97

Custodial Sentencing

Answer 97

Involves a convicted offender spending time in Prison or another closed institution such as a psychiatric hospital. There are 4 main reasons for this: Deterrence. Incapacitation. Retribution. Rehabilitation.

Question 98

Custodial Sentence Reason - Deterrence

Answer 98

The unpleasant experience of being imprisoned is designed to put off the individual or society as a whole from engaging in criminal behaviour. Deterrence works on 2 levels: General Deterrence - Sends a broad message that crime will not be tolerated. Individual Deterrence - Should prevent the individual from reoffending. Based on Behaviourist idea of conditioning through punishment.

Question 99

Custodial Sentence Reason - Incapacitation

Answer 99

The offender is taken out of society to prevent them reoffending as a means of protecting the public. The need for incapacitation depends upon the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender. For example, individuals in society will require more protection from a serial murdered than someone who refuses to pay tax.

Question 100

Custodial Sentence Reason - Retribution

Answer 100

Society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer in prison. The level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime. Many people see prison as the best option to make offenders ‘pay’ for their actions.

Question 101

Custodial Sentence Reason - Rehabilitation

Answer 101

It could be argued that the main objective of prison is to reform rather than punish the offender. Upon release, offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society. Prison should provide opportunities to develop skills and training or to access treatment programmes for addictions.

Question 102

Custodial Sentencing - Psychological Effects

Answer 102

Stress and Depression - Suicide rates are considerably higher in prison. The stress of prison increases risk of psychological disturbance following release. Institutionalisation - Having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life, inmates may not be able to function adequately in the real world upon release. Prisonization - Behaviour that may be unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged and rewarded in prisons.

Question 103

Custodial Sentencing - Problem of Recidivism

Answer 103

Recidivism = Reoffending. Govt statistics from 2013 suggest that 57% of UK offenders will reoffend within a year of release. In 2007, 14 UK prisons reported reoffending rates of over 70%. Rates of recidivism vary, sex offenders =18%, Burglars = 77%. In Norway where reoffending rates are the lowes in Europe, their prisons are very different to the UK, there is greater emphasis on rehabilitation and prisons are more open.

Question 104

Evaluation of Custodial sentencing

Answer 104

Differential Association Theory would suggest that Custodial Sentencing would not help as the prisons would be ‘schools of crime’. Reoffending rates suggest that the rehabilitation and deterrence elements of custodial sentencing don’t work. Rehabilitation Benefit - More employable upon leaving Prison. Support for Psychological Effect - Prison Reform Trust (2014) found that 25% of women and 15% of men in prisons reported symptoms indicative of psychosis.

Question 105

Behaviour Modification

Answer 105

These are programmes designed to reinforce obedient behaviour in offenders, whilst punishing disobedience, in the hope that obedience continues and disobedience becomes extinct. Made possible in Prisons through the use of Token Economy Systems.

Question 106

Behaviour Modification - Token Economy

Answer 106

Based on operant conditioning. Involves reinforcing desirable behaviour that can be exchanged for a reward. An example may be keeping the cell tidy or following prison rules. Prisoners are given a token every time they perform a desirable behaviour. Tokens are secondary reinforcers because they derive value from their association with a reward. Tokens may be taken away if prisoners are disobedient.

Question 107

Behaviour Modification - Changing Behaviour

Answer 107

As with all behaviour modification programmes, the desirable behaviour is identified, broken down into small steps, and a baseline measure is established. The behaviours to be reinforced are decided upon, and all those who come into contact with offenders must follow the same regime of selective reinforcement. For example, the prison officers may reinforce a particular prisoner for working well in a group etc. The whole programme can be monitored my prison officials who are able to monitor the effectiveness of the programme.

Question 108

Research on Behaviour Modification

Answer 108

Hobbs and Holt (1976) - Observed a token economy system in use at a US State Training School for Juvenile Delinquents. 125 Boys were observed from 4 different ‘cottages’. 1 Cottage served as a control group. *The baseline percentages for social behaviours before the system was in place were 66%, 47% and 73% for each of the 3 cottages. These increased to 91%, 81% and 94% after the system was implemented, an average increase of 27%. The control group showed no increase.

Question 109

Evaluation of Behaviour Modification

Answer 109

Easy - Implementation of the system is easy, it doesn’t require trained psychologists and provides a means of controlling unmanageable behaviour. Permanence? - Is the behaviour change permanent, or will it stop once tokens are removed. Ethical? - Token economy could result in increased risk of institutionalisation. Reward - Offenders are rewarded for behaviour that is the bare minimum in society whilst many law abiding families live below poverty line. Money - The reward system requres funding.

Question 110

Anger Management

Answer 110

Assumes that offenders commit crimes because they cannot control their anger, and that cognition influences anger. A form of CBT, focuses on learning to control anger and respond in more appropriate ways. Consists of 3 stages.

Question 111

Anger Management Stages

Answer 111

Novaco (1985) identified 3 stages: Cognitive Preparation - Offender learns to recognise feelings of anger and to recognise events/situations that trigger anger. Skill Acquisition - Involves teaching the offender techniques to control anger in difficult situations. For example the person may use positive self-talk to stay calm or use breathing techniques. Application Practice - Former anger provoking scenarios are replicated and the offender practices controlling their anger using their techniques, done in a non-threatening environment.

Question 112

An Example of Anger Mangement

Answer 112

Keen et al (2000) - Studied the progress made with young offenders who took part in a national anger management programme. Although there were initial issues in terms of offenders not taking the course seriously, the final outcomes were positive. Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger and an increased ability to control it.

Question 113

Research on anger Management

Answer 113

Ireland (2000) - Before and after programme anger scores for a group of 50 prisoners were compared with scores taken from a control group who had no treatment. The experimental group showed significantly reduced anger with 92% having improved on at least one measure, 48% improved on both and only 8% deteriorated.

Question 114

Evaluation of Anger Management

Answer 114

Successful? - Offenders could abuse the programme to get reduced sentences by claiming their anger has been reduced when in reality it has not. Environment - The programme takes place in a controlled non-threatening environment, so how doe we know that it will work in the real world. Support of Ireland 2000. Irrelevant? - If anger doesn’t cause aggression in all offenders, treating the anger element is pointless.

Question 115

Restorative Justice Programmes

Answer 115

A process of managed collaboration between offender and victim based on the related principles of healing and empowerment. A supervised meeting between the 2 parties is organised, the victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender explaining how they have been effected, the offender is able to see the consequences of their actions. An Important part of the rehab process.

Question 116

Aims of Restorative Justice

Answer 116

Atonement - Offenders may offer concrete compensation for the crime such as money or community service. The offender has the chance to develop and show empathy towards the victim. Victim Perspective - From the victim’s viewpoint, it can help reduce their sense of victimisation because they are no longer powerless and have a voice, gaining insight into why the offense was committed.

Question 117

Variations of Restorative Justice Process

Answer 117

Don’t all involve face-to-face encounters. Occasionally the offender may make some financial donation to the victim, reflecting the damage they have caused, May involve the offender repairing the damage they caused. It is flexible and can act as an alternative to prison, or may lead to a reduced sentence.

Question 118

Research on Restorative Justice

Answer 118

Sherman and Strang (2007) - Analysed 36 studies comparing restorative justice and conventional justice. Offender Outcomes - Repeat offending substantially reduced in comparison with custodial sentencing. Victim Outcomes - PTSD Symptoms were reduced, desire for revenge reduced.

Question 119

Evaluation of Restorative Justice

Answer 119

Requires both Offender and Victim to take part which may not always be possible. Relies on Offender showing remorse. Trauma - The process could e traumatic for the victim anc cause psychological harm. Is the offender doing it for the right reason or simply to avoid prison time. Research Support - Sherman and Strang.