Forensic Psychology Flashcards

Question

Evaluation of Top-down Approach

Answer 1

Evidence of Canter 2004 contradicts 'disorganised offender'. Only applies to certain crimes such as torture and rape. Whilst these are high priority, they are not frequent. Scherer and Jarvis 2014 - It has other benefits such as opening up new avenues for police. Subjective in classifying crime scenes. Not enough categories.

Answer 2

Aim is to generate a picture of the offender - their likely characteristics, behaviour and social background. Done through systematic analysis of evidence at the crime scene. The profile is data driven. Does not begin with fixed typologies.

Answer 3

Smallest Space Analysis. Interpersonal Coherence. Forensic Awareness.

Answer 4

A computer program that identifies correlations across patterns of crime scenes. Uses data bases for details of crimes, for example the MO, location etc. Specific details of an offence can then be matched against the database.

Answer 5

Central to the bottom-up approach. This is the way the offender behaves at the scene, including how they interact with the victim. May reflect their behaviour in more everyday situations. For example, whilst some rapists want to maintain maximum control and humiliate their victims, others are more apologetic.

Answer 6

Describes those individuals who have been the subject of police interrogation before. Their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks.

Answer 7

Canter and Heritage (1990). Content analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. Data examines using Smallest space analysis. Several characteristics were identified as common in most cases, such as use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim. This can help establish whether 2 or more offences were committed by the same person.

Answer 8

Pinizzotto and Finkel 1990. Compared 5 groups of people's ability to write a profile of a murder and sex offence. Expert profilers were most accurate at producing profiles of the sex offender. However, detectives with no profiling experience were more accurate in profiling the murderer.

Answer 9

Canter proposed that people do no just reveal themselves through the crimes they commit but also the locations they choose. Concerned with *where* rather than *who*. Offenders are more likely to commit a crime close to their house or where they habitually travel to because they now the area best. Analyses the locations of a connected serie of crimes and considers where the crimes were committed, the spatial relationships between different scenes and how they may relate to the offenders home.

Answer 10

Canter and Larkin 1993 proposed that most offenders have a spatial mindset, they commit their crimes within a kind of imagined circle. There are Marauders and Commuters.

Answer 11

The Offender's home is within the geographical area in which the crimes are committed.

Answer 12

The offender travels to another area and commits crimes within a defined space (circle).

Answer 13

Lundrigan and Canter 2011. Found that the offenders home was geographically central in the pattern. The location of each body disposal site tended to be different each time. This effect was most evident for offenders who travelled short distances.

Answer 14

Computerised system developed by Rossmo and Rossmo's formula. The formula produces a 3D map displaying spatial data related to time, distance and movement to and from crime scenes. The map is called a jeopardy surface and indicates where the offender is likely to strike next

Answer 15

More objective and scientific than the top down approach. Geographic profiling can help to narrow down search areas. However, geographic profiling cannot distinguish between multiple offenders in the same area. Human error could occur when inputting data to databases. Rachel Nickell Murder highlights over reliance on profilers being dangerous.

Answer 16

Lombroso (1876) proposed that offenders were a biologically distinct group of people exhibiting primitive characteristics. They were a separate species whose features enabled them to survive in the wild, but made them ill suited to civilised society. Criinals are born not made.

Answer 17

Large Jaws. Narrow sloping brow. High cheekbones. Large Ears. Extra Nipples. Dark Skin.

Answer 18

Argued that the shape of the head and the facial features determined the criminal type. For example, a murderer would have long ears and fleshy lips whilst a fraudster would have thin lips.

Answer 19

Lombroso based his theory on survey data of criminal heads and bodies. Sampled the proportions of 383 skulls of dead criminals and the heads of 3,800 living criminals. Concluded that approximately 40% of crimes could be attributed to the atavistic form.

Answer 20

Contradictory Research of Goring 1913.- Criminal Characteristics can lead to prejudices, especially the 'dark skin' characteristic which could be used to justify racial persecution. Deterministic - If you are born with these characteristics you will be a criminal.

Answer 21

Compared 3,000 convicts with a group of non-convicts, Found no differences except for the fact that convicts were slightly smaller.

Answer 22

The idea that one or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour.

Answer 23

Lange 1929 - Found concordance rates of 77% for MZ twins and 12% for DZ twins, suggesting a partly genetic explanation. Christianson (1977) - Found concordance rates of 33% for MZ twins and 12% for DZ twins.

Answer 24

Tihonen (2014) - A genetic analysis of 900 offenders. Revealed abnormalities on 2 genes that may be associated with violent crime: *MAOA gene*, which controls dopamine and serotonin in the brain and has been linked with aggressive acts. *CDH13 gene* which has been linked to substance abuse and attention deficit disorder. Estimated that 5-10% of all violent crime in Finland is due to abnormalities with these 2 genes. Those who had both gene abnormalities were 13X more likely to engage in violent crimes

Answer 25

A tendency towards criminal behaviour may come about through the combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological triggers. For example being raised in a dysfunctional environment or having criminal role models.

Answer 26

Application - For people with genetic vulnerability, efforts must be made to keep them away from the 'trigger'. Candidate Genes - Too simplistic to suggest that the 2 genes alone cause violent behavior. Biologically Deterministic - If you have these genes you are likely to commit violent crime.

Answer 27

There may be neural differences in the brains of criminals and non-criminals. Much of the research investigates those with Antisocial personality disorder (APD), which is associated with reduced emotional responses, lack of empathy for others and is a characteristic of many convicted criminals.

Answer 28

Raine et al (2000) - The volume of prefrontal grey and white matter (the part that regulates emotional behaviour) was measured using MRI in 21 people with APD and controls. There was a reduced volume of grey matter in the prefrontal area for the APD group. Autonomic activity was also measured in response to a stressful situation during which participants had to give a videotaped speech about their faults. Autonomic measures were heart rate and skin conductance. APD group showed reduced autonomic responses during stressful situation.

Answer 29

The criminality may cause these neural differences rather than the other way around as the brain is plastic. Application - The prefrontal lobe develops late and thus teenagers need extra support to prevent them committing crimes. Scientific - Credibility to psychology as a science.

Answer 30

Theory of personality based on the idea that character traits such as moodiness or talkativeness tend to cluster along 3 dimensions.

Answer 31

Extroversion - Introversion. Neuroticism - Stability. Psychoticism - Normality.

Answer 32

Extroverts are characterised as outgoing, having positive emotions but possibly being bored easily. Introverts tend to be focused more on internal thoughts, feelings and moods rather than seeking out external stimulation, tend to be more quiet, reserved, and introspective.

Answer 33

Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotional states such as anger, anxiety and depression, rather than positive emotional states. Stability refers to a person's ability to remain emotionally balanced and stable.

Answer 34

Psychotics are egocentric, aggressive, impulsive, impersonal, lacking in empathy and generally not concerned about the welfare of others.

Answer 35

Suggested that each trait has a biological basis which is mainly innate. Claimed that 67% of the variance for the traits is due to genetic factors. Argued that we inherit our nervous systems from our parents and our nervous systems influence the type of personality we have.

Answer 36

Extroversion is determined by the overall level of arousal in a person's nervous system. A person who is under-aroused requires more stimulation, whereas an over-aroused person does not require this. Extroverts seek external stimulation to increase their cortical arousal. This may lead to offending because they seek excitement and may engage in risk taking behaviour more often.

Answer 37

Neuroticism is determined by the level of stability in the sympathetic nervous system - how much a person responds in situations of threat. A neurotic person is someone who is slightly unstable and reacts/gets easily upset quickly. People with his characteristic are often unpredictable and associated with criminal behaviour.

Answer 38

Psychoticism has been related to higher levels of testosterone which means that men are more likely to be found at this end of the spectrum. Could explain why men commit more crimes than women.

Answer 39

Theory that people with high E and N scores have nervous systems that make them difficult to condition. As a result they won't learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses and anxiety. Consequently they will be more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presents.

Answer 40

Eysenck proposed that these personality dimensions were measurable using a personality questionnaire, The Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). The EPI consists of a large no. of questions to which respondents must answer either yes or no. The total no. of yes and no answers to certain questions reveals an E score, an N score and a P score.

Answer 41

Do you worry too long after an embarrassing experience? Are you rather lively? Do you find it hard to fall asleep at night? Do you like working alone?

Answer 42

McGurk and McDougall (1981) - 100 Students defines as 'delinquent' and 100 control students who were not delinquent completed the EPI and their E and N scores were calculated. Found significant differences in scores on all 3 dimensions. The delinquent group had a combination of high P, E and N scores.

Answer 43

Biological basis lacks any evidence. Assumes personality is consistent and doesn't change. If it is biological, where does responsibility for behaviour lie? Personality tests may be unreliable as people may answer for social desirability. Research support of McGurk and McDougall 1981. Introverts maybe commit less violent crimes such as fraud.

Answer 44

Applied the concept of moral reasoning to criminal behaviour. Kohlberg proposed that people's decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a *stage theory of moral development*. The higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning. Theory based off people's responses to a series of moral dilemmas.

Answer 45

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality. Level 2 - Conventional Morality. Level 3 - Post-conventional morality

Answer 46

Stage 1 - Punishment orientation: rules are obeyed to avoid punishment. Stage 2 - Instrumental orientation/personal gain: Rules are obeyed for personal gain. People operating at level 1 are most likely to commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards.

Answer 47

Stage 3 - 'Good boy' orientation: Rules obeyed for approval. Stage 4 - Maintenance of the social order: Rules obeyed to maintain social order. People operating at this level commit crime due to influence of others or to maintain relationships.

Answer 48

Stage 5 - Morality of contract and individual rights: Rules obeyed if they are impartial, democratic rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others. Stage 6 - Morality of conscience: The individual establishes his own rules in accordance with a personal set of ethical principles. People operating at his level commit crime as they operate on their own moral codes.

Answer 49

Criminal offenders are most likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level (level 1). Non-criminals tend to have progressed to levels 2 and 3. The pre-conventional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain reward, and is associated with less mature, childlike reasoning.

Answer 50

Hollin (1998) - Compared moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders. Used the Socio-Moral Reflection Measure-Short Form (SRM-SF) which contains 11 moral dilemma questions. The delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquent group. - Supports Kohlberg.

Answer 51

Research Support of Hollin 1998. Other factors - The theory jumps from moral reasoning to offending. Economy - It would be expensive to rehabilitate offenders to change their level of moral reasoning. Application - Encourage people from an early age to consider the views of others, thinking beyond themselves.

Answer 52

Forms of Irrational thinking. Ways that reality has been twisted so that what is perceived no longer represents reality.

Answer 53

Hostile Attribution bias. Minimalisation.

Answer 54

Misinterpretation of ambiguous situations as hostile situations. Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues, triggering a disproportionately violent response. For example someone accidentally bumping into someone in a pub = FIGHT.

Answer 55

Presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally stable expressions. Compared with the control group, they were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile.

Answer 56

Children were read five stories in which same sex peers caused an act of instrumental aggression but intention is ambiguous. neither clearly hostile nor clearly accidental. Children asked a series of questions about intent andretaliation and punishment. Findings: aggressive boys responds contained attributions of hostile intent

Answer 57

Downplaying the seriousness of the crime for the victim/society. For example a burglar may minimise the seriousness of their offence by describing themselves as providing for their family. Studies suggest that individuals who commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimalisation.

Answer 58

Barbaree (1991) - Found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all, whilst 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim.

Answer 59

Application - CBT encourages Sex offenders to face up to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions, reduced incidences of denial and minimalisation in therapy is highly correlated with reduced risk of reoffending. No explanation for why people experience distortions. Hard to measure cognition, instead it is based off inferences which are less accurate.

Answer 60

Sutherland (1939) proposed this theory, suggesting that offending behaviour can be explained entirely in terms of social learning. Suggests people are socialised into a life of crime. People vary in the frequency in which they associate with others who have more or less favourable attitudes to crime, and these attitudes influence their own attitudes and behaviour.

Answer 61

A child learns attitude towards crime. A potential criminal is someone who has learned pro criminal attitudes from those around them. Children will learn which particular types of crime are acceptable within their community and also desirable. For example they may learn that burglary is acceptable within their community but violent crime is not. For example they may learn that burglary is acceptable within their community but violent crime is not.

Answer 62

Intimate personal groups such as family and/or peer group. Also learnt from the wider neighbourhood/community. The degree to which the local community supports or opposes criminal involvement determines the differences in crime rates from one area to another. The individuals/social groups may not be criminals themselves, but they may still hold deviant attitudes or an acceptance of such attitudes.

Answer 63

Sutherland suggested that the frequency, length and personal meaning of such associations will determine the degree of influence. Did not specify the actual mode of learning. Likely to be both direct and indirect operant conditioning, involving role models.

Answer 64

Farrington (2006) - Group of 411 working class boys and their families were studied from same area of London from the age of 8 in 1961, to the age of 50. Researchers recorded details of family background, parenting styles and school behaviour. Also recorded the rate and type of convictions at various points. *Found that 41% of the sample had criminal convictions between the ages of 10-50. At age 17, 50% of convictions were attributable to a hardcore 5% of the sample. Key risk factors - Family criminality, poverty, poor parenting, risk taking and low school achievement.* Conclusion - Criminality develops in a context of inappropriate role models and dysfunctional systems of reward and punishment.

Answer 65

Partial Explanation - Confined to smaller crimes such as burglary rather than rape or murder. Application - Prisons for youths would simply be Schools of crime and thus should be a last resort. Application - Don't allow criminals to bring up children. Responsibility for crime - Where does it lie? With the community? Research Support - Farrington 2006.

Answer 66

Offending can be explained by the idea that offenders have an inadequate Superego

Answer 67

The superego (conscience) is developed through identification with the same sex parent in the phallic stage as a resolution of the oedipus/electra complex. Freudian Theory predicts that offending behaviour is due to an imbalance between the 3 components of the personality, the *id* is not sufficiently controlled by the superego.

Answer 68

Weak Superego - Child has not identified and therefore has no moral code. Deviant Superego - Child has identified with an immoral parent. Over-harsh Superego - Child misbehaves to fulfil unconscious desire for punishment because they are crippled by overwhelming guilt and anxiety.

Answer 69

Deprivation of a continuous and loving relationship with the mother in the first 2 years of a child's life results in irreversible damaging consequences such as delinquency, affectionless psychopathy and retardation. This fits in with criminal characteristics and may explain offending.

Answer 70

Bowlby (1944) - 44 criminal teenagers were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy (lack of affection, lack of guilt, lack of empathy). Their families were also interviewed in order to establish whether deprivation had taken place. *Found that 14/44 could be described as affectionless psychopaths. 12 out of this group of 14 had experienced deprivation.*

Answer 71

Contradictory Evidence - There is little evidence that children raised without a same-sex parent are less law-abiding as adults, contradicting Blackburn's argument. Genetics? - It could be that children who are raised by deviant parents are offenders themselves due to genetics rather than identification. Application - Don't allow criminal parents to raise children or adopt. Application - More intervention and support for families where there is just 1 parent.

Answer 72

Custodial Sentencing. Behaviour Modification. Anger Management. Restorative Justice Programmes

Answer 73

Involves a convicted offender spending time in Prison or another closed institution such as a psychiatric hospital. There are 4 main reasons for this: Deterrence. Incapacitation. Retribution. Rehabilitation.

Answer 74

The unpleasant experience of being imprisoned is designed to put off the individual or society as a whole from engaging in criminal behaviour. Deterrence works on 2 levels: General Deterrence - Sends a broad message that crime will not be tolerated. Individual Deterrence - Should prevent the individual from reoffending. Based on Behaviourist idea of conditioning through punishment.

Answer 75

The offender is taken out of society to prevent them reoffending as a means of protecting the public. The need for incapacitation depends upon the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender. For example, individuals in society will require more protection from a serial murdered than someone who refuses to pay tax.

Answer 76

Society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer in prison. The level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime. Many people see prison as the best option to make offenders 'pay' for their actions.

Answer 77

It could be argued that the main objective of prison is to reform rather than punish the offender. Upon release, offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society. Prison should provide opportunities to develop skills and training or to access treatment programmes for addictions.

Answer 78

*Stress and Depression* - Suicide rates are considerably higher in prison. The stress of prison increases risk of psychological disturbance following release. *Institutionalisation* - Having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life, inmates may not be able to function adequately in the real world upon release. *Prisonization* - Behaviour that may be unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged and rewarded in prisons.

Answer 79

Recidivism = Reoffending. Govt statistics from 2013 suggest that 57% of UK offenders will reoffend within a year of release. In 2007, 14 UK prisons reported reoffending rates of over 70%. Rates of recidivism vary, sex offenders =18%, Burglars = 77%. In Norway where reoffending rates are the lowes in Europe, their prisons are very different to the UK, there is greater emphasis on rehabilitation and prisons are more open.

Answer 80

Differential Association Theory would suggest that Custodial Sentencing would not help as the prisons would be 'schools of crime'. Reoffending rates suggest that the rehabilitation and deterrence elements of custodial sentencing don't work. Rehabilitation Benefit - More employable upon leaving Prison. Support for Psychological Effect - Prison Reform Trust (2014) found that 25% of women and 15% of men in prisons reported symptoms indicative of psychosis.

Answer 81

These are programmes designed to reinforce obedient behaviour in offenders, whilst punishing disobedience, in the hope that obedience continues and disobedience becomes extinct. Made possible in Prisons through the use of Token Economy Systems.

Answer 82

Based on operant conditioning. Involves reinforcing desirable behaviour that can be exchanged for a reward. An example may be keeping the cell tidy or following prison rules. Prisoners are given a token every time they perform a desirable behaviour. Tokens are secondary reinforcers because they derive value from their association with a reward. Tokens may be taken away if prisoners are disobedient.

Answer 83

As with all behaviour modification programmes, the desirable behaviour is identified, broken down into small steps, and a baseline measure is established. The behaviours to be reinforced are decided upon, and all those who come into contact with offenders must follow the same regime of selective reinforcement. For example, the prison officers may reinforce a particular prisoner for working well in a group etc. The whole programme can be monitored my prison officials who are able to monitor the effectiveness of the programme.

Answer 84

Hobbs and Holt (1976) - Observed a token economy system in use at a US State Training School for Juvenile Delinquents. 125 Boys were observed from 4 different 'cottages'. 1 Cottage served as a control group. *The baseline percentages for social behaviours before the system was in place were 66%, 47% and 73% for each of the 3 cottages. These increased to 91%, 81% and 94% after the system was implemented, an average increase of 27%. The control group showed no increase.

Answer 85

Easy - Implementation of the system is easy, it doesn't require trained psychologists and provides a means of controlling unmanageable behaviour. Permanence? - Is the behaviour change permanent, or will it stop once tokens are removed. Ethical? - Token economy could result in increased risk of institutionalisation. Reward - Offenders are rewarded for behaviour that is the bare minimum in society whilst many law abiding families live below poverty line. Money - The reward system requres funding.

Answer 86

Assumes that offenders commit crimes because they cannot control their anger, and that cognition influences anger. A form of CBT, focuses on learning to control anger and respond in more appropriate ways. Consists of 3 stages.

Answer 87

Novaco (1985) identified 3 stages: *Cognitive Preparation* - Offender learns to recognise feelings of anger and to recognise events/situations that trigger anger. *Skill Acquisition* - Involves teaching the offender techniques to control anger in difficult situations. For example the person may use positive self-talk to stay calm or use breathing techniques. *Application Practice* - Former anger provoking scenarios are replicated and the offender practices controlling their anger using their techniques, done in a non-threatening environment.

Answer 88

Keen et al (2000) - Studied the progress made with young offenders who took part in a national anger management programme. Although there were initial issues in terms of offenders not taking the course seriously, the final outcomes were positive. Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger and an increased ability to control it.

Answer 89

Ireland (2000) - Before and after programme anger scores for a group of 50 prisoners were compared with scores taken from a control group who had no treatment. The experimental group showed significantly reduced anger with 92% having improved on at least one measure, 48% improved on both and only 8% deteriorated.

Answer 90

Successful? - Offenders could abuse the programme to get reduced sentences by claiming their anger has been reduced when in reality it has not. Environment - The programme takes place in a controlled non-threatening environment, so how doe we know that it will work in the real world. Support of Ireland 2000. Irrelevant? - If anger doesn't cause aggression in all offenders, treating the anger element is pointless.

Answer 91

A process of managed collaboration between offender and victim based on the related principles of healing and empowerment. A supervised meeting between the 2 parties is organised, the victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender explaining how they have been effected, the offender is able to see the consequences of their actions. An Important part of the rehab process.

Answer 92

Atonement - Offenders may offer concrete compensation for the crime such as money or community service. The offender has the chance to develop and show empathy towards the victim. Victim Perspective - From the victim's viewpoint, it can help reduce their sense of victimisation because they are no longer powerless and have a voice, gaining insight into why the offense was committed.

Answer 93

Don't all involve face-to-face encounters. Occasionally the offender may make some financial donation to the victim, reflecting the damage they have caused, May involve the offender repairing the damage they caused. It is flexible and can act as an alternative to prison, or may lead to a reduced sentence.

Answer 94

Sherman and Strang (2007) - Analysed 36 studies comparing restorative justice and conventional justice. *Offender Outcomes - Repeat offending substantially reduced in comparison with custodial sentencing. Victim Outcomes - PTSD Symptoms were reduced, desire for revenge reduced.*

Answer 95

Requires both Offender and Victim to take part which may not always be possible. Relies on Offender showing remorse. Trauma - The process could e traumatic for the victim anc cause psychological harm. Is the offender doing it for the right reason or simply to avoid prison time. Research Support - Sherman and Strang.