Research Methods Flashcards
What are aims?
The intention or research question developed from our theory
What is the dependent variable ? (DV)
What is being measured
What is the independent variable ? ( IV)
What the researcher changes
What is meant by operationalising your variables?
Making sure your variable are in a form that can be easily tested. So the IV needs to be specific and the DV needs to be measurable
What is a extraneous variable ?
Any variable, other than the independent variable, that may have an effect on the dependent variable if it’s not controlled.
What is a confounding variable?
Any variable, other than the IV t, that may affect the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. They cannot be controlled before the experiment.
What are demand characteristics?
Any cue from the researcher or from research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead yo a participant changing there behaviour within the research situation. It is a extraneous variable.
What is the investigators effect ?
Any effect of the investigators behaviour(conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV) . This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process.
What is randomisation?
The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of the conditions.
What is standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
What are the disadvantages of independent group designs ?
- differences between the groups on the Dv may be more to do with the participants variable.
- they are less economical than repeated measure designs
What is the advantages of using independent group designs?
Order effective are not a problem.
What is the disadvantages of using repeated measures design ?
- Order effects. Such as the participants become bored or tired so might deteriorate there performance on the second task. It’s a confounding effect.
- demand characteristic tends to be more of a feature as participants are likely to workout the aim.
What are the advantages of using repeated measures ?
Participant variable are controlled and fewer participants are needed.
What are the advantages of using matched pairs?
- participants only need to take part in a single condition so order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem.
What are the disadvantages of matched pairs ?
- although there is some attempt to reduce participants variable in this design, participants can never be matched exactly so participant effects May effect the DV.
- matching may be time consuming and expensive. Particularly if a pre test is required so it’s less economical than other designs.
What is random sampling ?
When you pick people out at random e.g picking a name out of a hat or using a computer to select the names at random.
What is systematic sampling?
Selecting names from the sampling frame at regular intervals
What is a sampling frame?
A list of people in the target population organised into, for instance, alphabetical order.
What is opportunity sampling ?
Approaching people who are available at the time (in the same place as you) and wish to take part.
What is volunteer sampling ?
Aka. Self-selecting. asking people to volunteer, usually through adverts placed in the media, or through posters.
Describe stratified sampling ?
It’s where you pick a group of people to reflect your target population. You would split your sampling frame into different categories(strata) then the proportions needed for the sample to be representative. Then you randomly select the people needed
What are the advantage of random sampling?
- free from researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is selected.
What are the disadvantages of random sampling ?
- it is difficult and time - consuming to conduct.
- May still end up with a unrepresentative sample.
- selected participants may refuse to take part meaning that you would end up with more like a volunteer sample.
What are the advantages of systematic sampling ?
- avoids researcher bias
- fairly representative
What are the disadvantages of systematic sampling ?
- is still not 100% representative.
What are the advantages of stratified sampling ?
- avoid researcher bias
- representative sample so generalisations of findings is possible
What are the disadvantages of stratified sampling ?
- the identified strata cannot reflect all the ways people are different, so complete representative of the target population is not possible
What are the advantages of opportunity sampling ?
- convenient and saves the researcher time
What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling ?
- unrepresentative sample as it is drawn from a very specific area.
- researcher has control over the selection of participant. (Researcher bias)
What are the advantages of volunteer sampling ?
- collecting a sample is easy. Requires minimal input from the researcher so is less time consuming.
- students happy and willing to take part therefore mor l
What are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling ?
- volunteer bias is a problem. May attract a certain ‘profile’ of person.
what are strengths of a laboratory experiment?
- High control over extraneous variables so effect on the DV is a result of the IV.
- replication is more possible|
what are limitations of laboratory experiments?
- lack generalisability as it is a artificial environment. therefore low external validity
- low mundane realism
strengths of a field experiment ?
- higher mundane realism as its in a natural environment
- high external validity as behaviours are authentic
limitations of a field experiment
- lack of control over variables so cause and effect are more difficult to establish. Also replication is not possible.
strengths of a natural experiment
- high external validity as they involve the study of real life issues and problems
strengths of a natural experiment
- high external validity as they involve the study of real life issues and problems
limitations of natural experiments
- There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results.
Strengths of a quasi experiment
- often carried out in a controlled environment so the effects of the DV is a result of the IV.
Limitations of a Quasi experiment
- randomisation is not used so there may be confounding variables
Controlled observation
Watching and recording behaviour within structured environment
Covert observation
-participants are not aware there behaviours and being watched
Overt observation
Participants are aware they are being observed and give they give consent
Participant observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching
Non- participant observation
- the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching.
Strengths of a naturalistic observation
- high external validity as findings can be generalised to everyday life
Limitations of naturalistic observations
- replication is difficult
- many uncontrolled extraneous variables that make it difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour
Limitations of a controlled observation
- findings may not be able to apply to real-life settings.
Strengths of controlled observations
- extraneous variables may be less of a factor so replication be one easier
Strengths of a covert observation
- behaviours observed will be natural. Increasing validity.
Limitations of a covert observation
- ethical issues such as confidentiality
Strengths of a obvert observation
- more ethically acceptable
Limitations of obvert observations
- participants reactivity may not be natural
Strengths of a participant observation
- researchers have an increased insight into the lives of people being studied as the researcher experiences the situation increasing the validity.
Limitations of participants observation
- researchers may lose objectivity as the come to identify strongly with the people they are observing
Strengths of a non- participant observation
- allows the researcher to maintain a objective psychological distance from their participant so the less danger of them going ‘naive’
Limitations of a non-participant observation
Valuable insight may be lost as there too far away from the people and behaviour there studying
Strengths of questionnaires
- they are cost-effective. Can gather large amounts of data quickly.
- the data produced is usually straightforward to analyse
Limitations of questioniares
-social desirability bias as participants want to make themselves look good so may not be truthful
- response bias such as acquiescence bias where the participant respond in a similar pattern as they completed the questionaire too quickly
Strengths of a structured interview
- straightforward to replicate due to their standardised format.
Limitations of a structured interview
- not possible for interviewers to deviate from topic or elaborate their points which may be a source of frustration
Strengths of a unstructured interview
- more flexible so interviewer can follow up on points as they arise and can gain more insight
Limitations of a unstructured interview
- Analysis of data is not straightforward and the researcher may shift through much irrelevant information to draw a conclusion
What type of data does a closed question produce?
Quantitative
What is a structured interview?
- made up of pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
What is a unstructured interview?
- like a conversation. There are no set questions. There is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed
What is a semi-structured interview?
- a list of questions have been worked up in advance but Interviewer are also free to ask follow up questions when they feel it is appropriate
describe errors in question design when designing questions and interviews
- overuse of jargon- the question should be simple and easily understood
- emotive language- makes the authors answer towards a specific topic clear
- leading question- guides the respondent towards a specific answers
-double-barrelled questions- the respondent may agree with one half of the question but disagree with the other half - double negatives -can be difficult for the respondents to decipher
pilot study
- a small scale investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted
what is the aim of a pilot study?
to allow the researcher to identify any potential issues and to modify the design, or procedure, saving time and money in the long run.
what is a control group?
the standard to which comparisons are made in an experiment. if the change in behaviour of the experimental group is significantly greater than that of the control group, then the researcher can conclude that the cause of the effect was the IV
designing questionaires
types of closed questions:
- likert scale - respondent indicates how
much they agree or disagree
-rating scale
- fixed choice option- tick the box
designing interviews
- standardised interview schedule to avoid researcher bias
- awareness of ethical issues
designing interviews
- standardised interview schedule to avoid researcher bias
- awareness of ethical issues
ethical issues
- informed consent- advising participants of what is involved, may reveal research aim and reminding them of there right to withdraw
- deception- there are ocassions where it can be justified if does not cause the participant any distress
-protection from harm
-privacy and confidentiality
how do with deal with the issue of informed consent?
- participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all the information.
how do we deal with the issue of deception and protection of harm?
-debriefing at the end of the study, participants should be made aware of the true aim of the study and any other information.
- participant should also be made aware of there right to withhold data
how do we deal with confidentiality issues?
- personal details are held. or sometimes participants are kept anonymous.
-during briefing and debriefing, participants are reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process
alternative ways to get consent?
- presumptive consent- a similar group of people asked if the study is acceptable
- prior general consent- participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies- including the one that involves deception
-retrospective consent- participants are asked for their consent during debriefing having already taken part in the study
unstructured observation
- the researcher writes down everything they see and produces accounts that are rich in detail
structured observations
- simplifies the target behaviours. allows the researcher to quantify their observation’s using a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods\
behaviour categorises
- when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable.
sampling methods in a structured observation
- event sampling- the researcher records how many times the target behaviour or event occurs
- time sampling- the researcher records the behaviour in a target individual or group in a fixed time frame
strengths of using behavioural categories in unstructured research
- makes recording data easier and easy to analyse and compare
limitations of unstructured observations
- data is difficult to record and analyse
-observer bias
strengths of unstructured observations
- more information is provided
what important things does the observer have to make sure is done when making behavioural categories?
- must be clear and unambiguous
- must be observable and measurable
-all possible forms of target behaviour are included. there should not be dustbin categories
-should be exclusive and no overlap
strengths of event sampling
- useful when target population or event happens quite infrequently and could be missed in a time sample
limitations of event sampling
- if specified event is too complex, the observer may overlook important details
strengths of time sampling
-effective in reducing the number of observations that have been made
limitation of time sampling
- might be unpresentable of the observation as a whole
what is the difference between a correlation and a experiment?
- in a experiment the IV is controlled or manipulated in order to measure the effect on the DV so it is possible to infer that changes to the DV is a result of the IV whereas in a correlation there is no manipulation of the iv so cause and effect can not be established between co-variables.
strengths of a correlation
-useful preliminary tool for research, which may suggest ideas doe future research.
-quick and economical as there is no need for a controlled environment or manipulation and secondary data can be used.
limitations of correlations
-correlations cannot demonstrate cause and effect as there is lack of control
-third variable problem may be the cause of the correlation,
-can be misused or misinterpreted
qualitative data
data that is expressed in words and non numerical
quantitative data
numerical data
primary data
information that has been obtained first hand by the researcher for the purpose of a research project. Data is often gathered directly from the participant as part of an experiment, self-report or observation
secondary data
information that has been already collected and analysed by someone else .
strengths of qualitative data
-rich in detail
-has high external validity as it provides a more meaningful insight into the participants worldview
limitations of qualitative data
-difficult to analyse
-conclusions may be subjective and may be subject to bias .
strengths of quantitative data
- simple to analyse
- less open to bias
limitations of quantitative data
- much narrower scope so may fail to represent “real life”
strengths of primary data
-high validity
-targets relevant information as they are obtained for the purpose of research
limitations of primary data
- requires time and effort to produce.
strengths of secondary data
-inexpensive and easy to obtain and requires minimal effort
limitations of secondary data
-quality and accuracy of the data may not be correct
-information may be out-dated or incomplete
-may not quite match the researchers needs
aims of peer review
- to allocate research funding
-to validate the quality and relevance of research - to suggest amendments or improvements
limitations of peer review
- because the reviewer is anonymous unjustified cricism may occur from rivals. possible when competing for limited funding
-publication bias. file drawer problem, creates false impressions of current knowledge
-ground-breaking research may be buried as it doesn’t fit the status quo or the scientist opinions.
how does the role of the father have implications of the economy
- more recent research shows that fathers are also able to form attachment with a child this means that there can be a more flexible working arrangement in families. Meaning both parents can work and contribute to the economy.
how does developments of treatments for mental illness have implications to the economy
-a third of absences has been found to be due to mental health disorders costing the government estimated 15 billion therefore if patients are able to treat there condition quickly and effectively so can return to work so the economy benefits
-Psychological research may lead to better ways of managing people whilst they are at work
to improve productivity: eg research into motivation and workplace stress.
case studies
- an in-depth study that gathers detail about one person or small group
strengths of case studies
- rich and detailed qualitative data. means provides great insight into patient, partically atypical and unusual behaviour. also less superficial than lab experiments and questionnaires which lack mundane realism therefore= high ecological validity
- support of triangulation where many research methods can lead to the generation of new hypotheses. if case study contradicts could lead to the revision of entire theory but leads to positive developments of the theory
limitations of case study
- lacks generalisability. may not be representative of the wider population
-subjectivity bias leads to low validity as it depends on the interpretation the psychologist places on information. and observer’s bias.
-lack of replication- time consuming and impossible to replicate each case as its unique therefore lacks reliability.
content analysis
method of observational research in which people are studies indirectly via the communications they have produced such as conversations,
speechs,presentations,emaills and books. aim is the summarise these communications systematically so an overall conclusion can be drawn.
coding in content analysis
- communications are analysed and categorised into meaningful units e.g.. counting the number of times a particular word appears in the text. produces quantitative data.
thematic analysis
- form of content analysis producing qualitative data.
-identifies themes from recurring ideas which can be developed into broader categories.
strengths of content analysis
-can circumnavigate many ethical issues normally associated with psychological research. materials studied such as Tv adverts and films etc… may already exist within the public domain. thus, there is no issue s with obtaining permission.
-flexible as it produces both qualitative and quantitative data.
limitation of content analysis
- people are studies indirectly so the communication they produce may be outside of the context within which they occurred. The researcher may attribute opinions and motivations to the speaker or writer that were not originally intended. therefore, may suffer from lack of objectivity, especially when more descriptive forms of thematic analysis are employed.
validity
how legitimate the results produced are
internal validity
- whether the effect observed in an experiment is due to manipulation of the iv and not another factor.
- demand characteristics=lower validity
external validity
- generalising the results to other settings, other poulation and areas
ecological validity
-the extent to which behaviour observed and recired in a study reflect to behaviours that actually occur in reallife
temporal validity
- whether findings from a study hold true over time
assessing validity
- face validity: whether the test appears (at face value) to measure what it claims to
- concurrent validity:refers to the extent to which the results of a particular test or measurement correspond to those of a previously established measurement for the same construct. Valid: ensuring the test accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
improving validity
- experimental research uses a control group allows the researcher to assess whether
- the changes in the dependent variable were due to the effect of the independent variable.
-standardised procedures and use of single blind and double study, procedures to minimise impact of investigator bias and
participant reactivity
-lie scale in questionnaires to assess the consistency of respondents’ response and control the effects of social desirability bias. also assuring respondents their results will remain anonymous
-observational research may produce findings that have high ecological validity as there may be minimal intervention by the researcher.
-qualitative data have more ecological validity because they provide depth
-use of triangulation=use number of differnt sources of evidence
3 factors when deciding what statistical test to use
- difference or correlation
-experimental design
-levels of measurement
levels of measurement
nominal- participants are categorised into groups
ordinal- participants are ranked. lacks precision because it’s based ion subjective opinion
interval data- measures data in fixed intervals, numerical.
type 1 error (false positive)
- alternative hypothesis accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been the other way round
type 2 (false negative)
- when the null hypothesis is accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected when it should have been the other way round.
Reliability
- refers to how consist the findings from an investigation or measuring device. If reproduces consistent result every time it’s said to be reliable
Assessing reliability
- test-retest- administering the same test or questionnaire to the same person on different occasions. Must be sufficient time between the test and retest to ensure that the participants/respondents cannot recall their answers to the questions go a survey but not so long that their attitudes,opinions or ability’s may have changed. Sets of scores are correlated to make sure they are similar.
- inter-observer reliability- the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. Data is correlated to test its reliability
Improving reliability
-Ensure complex or ambiguous questions are not used
- used closed questions
- try and use the same interviewer each time
- structured interviews
- ensure the conditions tested in are kept the same
- behavioural categories are operationalised , non overlapping and all possible behaviours should be covered on the checklist
3D method in choosing statistical tests
- difference, design and data
MEMORISE TABLE
Psychological reports order
- abstract
- introduction
- method
-results
-discussion
-referencing
Abstract
-first section in a journal article = a short summary that included all the Moab or parts: the aims, hypothesis, methods, procedure,results and conclusions
Introduction
- start with short general theory, briefing introducing the topics
- narrow form to specific and relevant theory and research.
- should be logical profession of ideas and lead to the researchers aims and hypothesis
Method
- a description of what the researcher did-
- included the design, sample,apparatus, materials, procedure and ethics
Procedure = - recipe-style list of everything that happened in the investigation
Results
- description of what the researcher found,including descriptive and inferential statistics
discussion
- various elements
-summarised results
-discussion of evidence
-limitations of study
-wider implications of the research
-
referencing
format= Last name, first initial, year published, Article title, journal, volume (issues), pages
Why is psychology not considered a science?
- Thomas Kuhn argued that psychologist lacked a paradigm (set of shared assumptions and agreed methods with a scientific principle) in comparison to natural sciences.
-psychology has too much internal disagreement making it a pre-science
theory
set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours
-conducted through gathering evidence via direct observations
deduction
the process of deriving new hypothesises from an existing theory
features of sciences
-falsifiability- science should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false.
-replicability- if a scientific theory is to be “trusted” its findings must be shown to be repeatable across time and context. Methods used should be repeatable.
-objectivity and empirical methods- scientist must minimises all sources of personal bias and gather evidence through direct observation and experience.
field experiment
a research method that uses some controlled elements of traditional lab experiments, but takes place in natural, real-world settings
natural experiment
conducted in every day (i.e., real life) environment of the participants, but here the experimenter has no control over the independent variable as it occurs naturally in real life
quasi experiment
contain a naturally occurring IV. However, in a quasi-experiment the naturally occurring IV is a difference between people that already exists (i.e. gender, age). The researcher examines the effect of this variable on the dependent variable (DV).
Why would researchers use a 4% level of significance rather than a 1% level
-the 5% level of significance is a conventional level of probability emphasised by psychologist which balances the risk of making a type 1 and type 2 error.
- if rears net isn’t sensitive or puts an individuals health at risk then 1% if not needed
Paradigm and paradigm shift
- a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within scientific disciplines
- paradigm shift occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence= scientific evolution= a significant change in a dominant theory within a scientific disciple
