Research Methods Flashcards
One tailed hypothesis (directional hypothesis)
A one-tailed directional hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. E.g., adults will correctly recall more words than children. This would normally be used when there’s previous research available.
Two tailed hypothesis (non directional)
A two-tailed non-directional hypothesis predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified. E.g., there will be a difference in how many numbers are correctly recalled by children and adults.
Null hypothesis
This is when you predict that there will be no change whatsoever in an experiment that has already been done but with a changed independent variable.
What is an aim
This is what the experimenter is trying to find out.
What is the acronym for the sign test
Sign Nominal o Repeated measures Differences
How to do the sign test
- State the hypothesis, directional hypothesis require a one-tailed test however, a non-directional would require a two-tailed test
- Record the data and work out the sign. Record each pair of data and record the difference using + and -.
- Find the calculated value. S is the symbol for the test statistic we are calculating. It is calculated by adding up the + and - and selecting the smaller value. E.g +10 and -3 and one 0. The less frequent sign is minus, so S =3. This is the calculated value.
- Find the critical value of S. N= the total number of scores(ignoring any zero values). If the hypothesis is directional then you use a one-tailed test. We use the table of critical values and the row that has our N value.
When do we use the sign test
This is a test that is used when looking at paired or related data.
The two related pieces f data could come from a repeated measures design, the same person is tested twice.
The sign test can also be used with matched pairs design because the participants are paired and therefore count, for the purpose of statistics, as one person tested twice.
Meta analysis
When you do an overview of a large amount of studies
Nominal data
This is data in the form of categories. E.g male and female, using the cognitive interview or standard interview.
Ordinal data
Data that can be ranked. E.g on a scale of 1 - 5 how happy are you
Interval data
This is interval level data. This Provides the precise measurements and is not subjective. e.g it’s 39 degrees
Independent variables
The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. E.g changing the intensity of the light.
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured. E.g seeing the change in photosynthesis
What is meant by the term operationalisation
This is clearly stating or defining your variables for what they are measuring. E.g saying that the patients will improve on a scale of 1-10.
Random allocation
Randomly picking people to participate in the experiment from a target audience.
Counter balancing
A procedure that allows a researcher to control the effects of nuisance variables in designs where the same participants are repeatedly subjected to conditions, treatments or stimuli.
Randomisation
Randomising the materials in your experiment or variable within it
Standardisation
Following standard procedures and instructions with all participants.
Extraneous variables
Things that we need to control so they don’t effect our results. E.g taking a test in a cold room, the temperature of the room may affect the performance on the test and therefore be a extraneous variable.
You can control them by making sure that they have taken into account and the right procedures have been met to negate the factors.
Confounding variables
Variables that you can’t control. E.g someone having a migraine can affect your results.
Validity
A measure of how well a test measures what it claims to measure
Ecological validity
A measure of how test performance predicts behaviour in real world setting.
Population validity
Are the participants in your study representative of the population.
Temporal validity
Does the theory/research stand the test of time.
Reliability
Refers to the consistency of a research study or measuring test
Informed consent
This is the participant giving their consent to the researcher/experimenter. If they are under 18 then their parents have to give the consent.
Deception
This is where the participants are misled or wrongly informed about the aims of the research.
Right to withdraw
Participants should know that they can withdraw at any time.
Confidentiality
Keep your participants identity safe.
Protection form harm
The researcher has to ensure that the participants don’t suffer any distress caused from the experiment. They need to be protected form mental and physical harm.
Debrief
After the research is over the participant should be able to discuss the procedure and the findings with the psychologist. They must be given a general idea of what the researcher was investigating and why, and their part in the research should be explained.
Participants must be told if they have been deceived and given reasons why. They must be asked if they have any questions and those questions should be answered honestly and as fully as possible.
What is a Independent groups design and what are the strengths and weaknesses.
Participants would only take part in one condition.
Strength- order effect doesn’t occur
Limitations- individual differences may effect the result
What is the repeated measures design and what are the strengths and weaknesses.
A group that participants in both conditions.
Strengths- no individual differences, need fewer participants.
Weaknesses- order effect, distractions can interfere with the results.
What is the matched pairs design and what are the strengths and weaknesses.
When participants are matched for characteristics that they have.
Strength- avoids order effects
Weaknesses- impossible to match perfectly, if one participant drops ou, you lose 2 participants.
What is a field experiment and what are the advantages and weaknesses
This is when you do an experiment in its natural environment. E.g eating pasta in it he kitchen because that’s where people normally eat it instead of a lab.
Advantages- behaviours reflect real life scenario, there is less likelihood of demand characteristics coming into play.
Weaknesses-it’s hard to control extraneous variables which could influence results.
What is a laboratory experiment and what are the advantages and weaknesses
These are experiments done in a lab where they can control all the variables. These are often done in artificial settings.
Strengths- you can control and isolate to see the effect of a variable, results are reliable as they have been done in controlled environments.
Weaknesses- may lack ecological validity because of the fact that it’s done in a artificial setting.
What are standardised procedures
This is a procedure that is used on all participants to avoid bias’ occurring in the experiment.
What is a confederate
These are people that are in on the experiment but pretend to be participants in an experiment.
What is a experimental group
These are groups that are exposed to the independent variable. These participants receive or are exposed to the treatment.
What are control groups
These are groups of the experiment in which the effect of a treatment is unknown and comparisons between the control group and the experimental group are used to measure the effect of the treatment.
What are demand characteristics
This when people try and guess what the experimenter is looking for and therefore try and manipulate their behaviour in order to give the experimenter what they are looking for.
What does the term double blind mean
This is when in a study, neither the participants nor the experimenter know who is receiving a particular treatment. This procedure is used to prevent bias in research results.
What does the term single blind mean
This is when the participants are deliberately kept ignorant of either the group to which they have been assigned or key information about the materials they are assessing, but the experimenter is in possession of this knowledge.
What are Natural experiments and what are the advantages and weaknesses
This is where you make most of a naturally occurring event. E.g Romanian orphans.
Strengths- likely to have high ecological validity, less likelihood of demand characteristics.
Weaknesses- ethical issues may occur, can’t control extraneous variables.
Quasi experiment
In these experiments, the investigator cannot randomly assign units or participants to conditions, cannot generally control or manipulate the independent variable. E.g being female or male
What does the term behavioural categories mean
These are behaviours researcher looks for in an experiments. E.g shaking, stuttering, freezing, sweating
What is event sampling
This is when in an observation, you have a table of behavioural categories that you tally up when you see a behaviour present.
What is time sampling
This is when you decide when your going to observe a study. E.g every 10 minutes, you’ll observe for 1 minute
Controlled observation
This is when the researcher observes the participants in an experiment in a contained environment such as a laboratory. The participants are aware that they are being observed.
Naturalistic observation
When you observe someone in their everyday life. E.g public speaking and observing their behaviour.
Covert observation
This is when the researcher is in the experiment undercover with the participants.
Overt observation
This is a open observation
What is the acronym for Mann Whitney
M- Mann Whitney
I- independent groups
D- difference
O- ordinal
Sign test acronym
S- sign N- nominal o R- repeated measures D- difference
Chi square acronym
C-chi square A- association N- nominal D- difference I- independent
Unrelated T test acronym
U- unrelated T test N I- interval I- independent group T- T test D- difference D
Related T test acronym
D- difference I- interval R- repeated measures R- related T test T
Spearman’s rho Acronym
C- correlation
O- ordinal
S- spearman’s rank
Pearson’s r acronym
C- correlation
I- interval
P- Pearson
Wilcoxon acronym
W- wilcoxon
O- ordinal
R- repeated measures
D- difference
Degrees of freedom for related T test
DF = N-1
Degrees of freedom unrelated T test
DF = N(a) + N(b) -2
Degrees of freedom for spearman’s rho
DF = N
Degrees of freedom for person’s r
DF = N - 2
What does the acronym FHPOTTER stand for in features of science
F - falsifiable H - hypothesis P- paradigms and paradigm shift O- objective T- testing T- theory construction E-empirical R- reliable
What are the key features of a science
- There must be a definable subject matter or paradigm (general laws).
- There must be a theory constructed from which hypotheses are derived and tested
- Concepts must be falsifiable
- here must be a use of empirical methods of investigation that can be replicated and can produce objective results.
Paradigm
A paradigm consists of basics assumptions, ways of thinking, and method of study that are commonly accepted by members of a discipline or group.
Deduction (features of science)
Deriving a new hypothesis from an existing theory ( taking a general idea and making it specific).
If the hypothesis and predictions are not confirmed when tested, then the theory needs to be reconsidered.
Theory -> hypothesis -> observation -> confirmation.
Induction (features of science)
Turning something specific and making it general.
Observation -> pattern -> tentative hypothesis -> theory.
Ways we asses reliability
- Inter-observer reliability- use a team of at least 2 observers to gain objective, reliable results.
- Test retest reliability- compares a participant’s performance on the same people on different occasions (external reliability).
How to carry out inter-observer reliability
Have 1 or more observers
Create an operationalised tally of behaviours that the observers can use and count the amount.
Times other behaviour appears in the observation
Compare the two tally’s of results that have the frequency of behaviour.
If the correlation co-efficient is equal to or more than 0.80, then it has a strong correlation.
Internal validity
Are you measuring what you say your measuring l
External validity
Can the findings be generalised beyond the context of the research situation.
Ways to assess validity
Concurrent validity- compares new measurement with and existing, valid one.
