Research Methods Flashcards
Null Hypothesis
Predicts no pattern or trend in results.
Alternative Hypothesis
Predicts a difference or correlation in results.
Independent Variable
Change
Dependent Variable
Measure
Control Variable
Keep
Experimental Designs?
How participants are allocated in experimental conditions.
-repeated measures
-independent measures
Repeated Measures
Testing all participants under both conditions.
Independent Measures
The participants in one condition are independent (different) from participants in the other.
Criticism of Repeated Measures
-May perform better on second condition due to practice effect.
-May perform worse on second condition due to fatigue and boredom.
-Cause demand characteristics.
-Task may need to be changed between conditions making it an extraneous variable.
Criticism of Independent Measures
-Differences in conditions may be due to individual differences
-Potentially more participants will be needed due to them not being able to be used more than once per condition.
Demand Characteristics
Participants changing their behaviour or answers to purposefully hinder or aid an experiment.
Social Desirability
Participants changing their answers because they wished to be liked by the experimenter/person marking a questionnaire.
Samples
Random Sample - a sample selected at chance.
Opportunity Sampling - a sample selected by convenience.
Self-selected Sample - a sample selected through volunteers.
Experiment Types
lab —> lack ecological validity
field (experimenter directly manipulates IV) (natural environment)
natural (IV is NOT directly manipulated e.g piaget )
Extraneous Variable
Any variable that you’re not investigating that affects the dependent variable.
Quantitative Data
Numerical data
Qualitative Data
Descriptive data normally in the form of words, video images or pictures.
Internal Reliability
where a measure is consistent within itself (extraneous variables can affect this)
External Reliability
where a measure is consistent beyond itself, on another occasion
Observer Effect
Subjects altering their behaviour when they aware that an observer is present.
Construct Validity
Ability of a measurement tool to actually measure the psychological concept being studied.
Co-variables
Something that changes in relation to another variable
Overt Observation
Researcher is open with participants about observing their behaviour.
(participants know they are being studied)
Covert Observation
Participants are unaware of the presence of the researcher and are NOT aware that they’re behaviour is being studied.
Participant Observation
Researcher observes the people while participating in their activities (Bickman, Milgram)
Non Participant Observation
Researcher observes people without participating in their activities (Heaven)
Primary and Secondary Data
Primary = First-hand info collected by researcher for study
Secondary = Pre-existing data (e.g newspaper, diary entry, or even info from another data)
Experimenter Bias
The researcher influences the results in order to portray a certain outcome.
Observer Bias
Occurs when observers biases inclinations determine which behaviours they choose to observe.
Gender Bias
The emphasis of the study is more inclined to one gender
6 ethical issues in psychology
- withdrawal
- debrief
- informed consent
- protection of participants
- deception
- confidentiality
reliability
the overall consistency of an idea or method (how replicable it is)
validity
the ability of a test to measure what is is suppose to measure/ how true or accurate something is
types of external validity
ecological validity
population validity
type of internal validity
construct validity
questioning bias
to phrase a question to favour one view over others (“dont you need more sleep”)
Correlational Study
An analysis of the relationship between two variables.
Northing is manipulated, two co-variables are simply measured to look for an association.
(e.g blackwell)
evaluate qualitative data
= descriptive data
pros:
- in depth/detailed therefore more information about a single case high validity
- can lead to possible investigations of cause and effect and relationships
cons:
-time consuming
-expensive
-less generalisable
-no statistical tests or info (sometimes easier to understand with numbers than pages of writing)
-samples do not have a large data set affecting reliability of data as it can be subjective in its nature
evaluate quantitative data
= numerical data
pros:
- scientifically objective , easily replicated as the data obtained does not need a lot of interpretation of results so more reliable (easier to identify patterns and trends)
-can you it to reject or accept the null hypothesis
cons:
-require very large samples to get useful data
- poor knowledge of stats can lead to misinterpretation of data
-less in depth
- LOW CONSTRUCT VALIDITY = simplifies the complexity
Self report + criticisms
methods of gathering data where participants provide information about themselves without interference from the experimenter.
pros:
-For research, it is inexpensive and can reach many more test subjects than could be analyzed by observation or other methods. It can be performed relatively quickly, so a researcher can obtain results in days or weeks rather than observing a population over the course of a longer time frame. Self-reports can be made in private and can be anonymized to protect sensitive information and perhaps promote truthful responses.
cons:
-Honesty: Subjects may make the more socially acceptable answer rather than being truthful.
(social desirability)
Introspective ability: The subjects may not be able to assess themselves accurately.
-Rating scales: Rating something yes or no can be too restrictive, but numerical scales also can be inexact and subject to individual inclination to give an extreme or middle response to all questions.
-Response bias: Questions are subject to all of the biases of what the previous responses were, whether they relate to recent or significant experience and other factors.
-Sampling bias: The people who complete the questionnaire are the sort of people who will complete a questionnaire. Are they representative of the population you wish to study?
unstructured interview
An unstructured interview is the most flexible type of interview, with room for spontaneity. In contrast to a structured interview, the questions and the order in which they are presented are not set.
standardised
when every participant has the same interview (same questions)
structured interview
the interviewer has a set of prepared closed-ended questions in the form of an interview schedule, which he/she reads out exactly as worded. Interviews schedules have a standardized format which means the same questions are asked to each interviewee in the same order
strength/weakness of correlations
- high ecological validity as nothing is set up or manipulated
- cannot establish cause and effect as they only measure the relationship between two variables
external validity
the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to and across other situations, people, stimuli, and times.
(bickman high external validity)
strengths/weaknesses of primary/secondary data
strengths of primary data:
-reliable data (trust it) as it has been collected by themselves
weaknesses of primary data:
- expensive and time consuming
strengths of secondary data:
-saves time and money as data is already pre-existing
-psychologist may have access to data they would not have been able to collect otherwise
weaknesses of secondary data:
-untrustworthy
Where is the IV placed on a graph
IV = ALWAYS the X axis (horizontal)
inter- rater reliability
where two or more researchers agree on a set of results
