Research Methods Flashcards

Question

Stratified random sampling is a type of representative sampling, what is this?

Answer 1

Researcher first breaks down population in sampling frame by age, gender, ethnicity etc Sample is then created in same proportions

Answer 2

Population is stratified like in stratified random sampling, then each is given a quota which they have to fill with respondents who fit these characteristics Interviewer keeps at this task until their quota is filled

Answer 3

May not be possible because: - social characteristics (what's relevant eg/ gender, class, ethnicity) of research population may not be known and therefore it would be impossible to create a sample that was an exact cross section of it - potential respondents may refuse to participate Not all studies use representative sampling techniques, even when its possible to use representative sampling some sociologists still may choose not to do so because of their theoretical/methodological perspective - Snowball sampling - Opportunity sampling

Answer 4

Involves collecting a sample by contacting key number of individuals who are asked to suggest others who would participate in the research

Answer 5

Involves choosing from individuals easiest to access + individuals are easy to access - practical - unlikely to be representative sample

Answer 6

Can achieve ore precise data directly linked to thir hypothesis Secondary data may have incorrect details

Answer 7

It may be possible to find or create a sampling frame for that particular research population Potential respondents may refuse to participate Costs limited

Answer 8

Invasion of privacy Betrayl of trust

Answer 9

They study large groups/samples so its easier to look at and compare results

Answer 10

Useful to get a sample together quickly To contact a sample which may otherwise be difficult to find

Answer 11

Lab experiments (Positivist prefer-objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology) Field experiments Comparitive method

Answer 12

- scientist manipulates variables in which they are interested in to discover what effect they have - can establish a cause and effect relationship - allows them to predict accurately what will happen in future under specified conditions - can be replicated considering its completely reliable, producing same results each time - very detached method - personal feelings and opinions have no effect Positivists-see sociology as a science-see it as an objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology

Answer 13

- Society is very complex-impossible to identify, let alone control all the variables that impact behaviour - small scale nature reduces their representativeness - THEORETICALLY - artificial environments produce artificial results (lab is not normal or natural environment therefore behaviour in these conditions isn't true to life or valid) - If people know they are being studied this knowledge is likely to impact behaviour (change it - Hawthorne effect)

Answer 14

Take place in the subjects natural surroundings - makes research more valid and realistic +To avoid the Hawthorne effect those involved aren't generally aware they're taking part - Critics argue this makes it unethical - They are more realistic so less scope for control over variables that might be operating

Answer 15

A “thought" experiment-does not involve researcher actually experimenting on real people - discover cause and effect 1. Identify two groups of people that are alike in all major respects except for one variable we’re interested in 2. Compare the two groups to see if the difference between them has any effect + ethical + avoids artificiality + can be used to study past events - gives researcher even less control over variables-even less certain whether this method discovers cause and effect

Answer 16

So a clear cause and effect relatioship can be established

Answer 17

Variables are controlled Scientists personal feelings have no effect

Answer 18

So there is not an impact on their natutral behaviour Gives better chances of findings being more valid

Answer 19

They prefer more qualitative data Doesn't give natural results - low validity

Answer 20

P E R V E R T ``` Practical factors Ethical Reliability Validity Examples Representativeness Theoretical (would positivists or interpretivists use it?) ```

Answer 21

List of pre determined questions Can be administered by hand, post or online Closed questions (pre determined range of responses) and open questions (answer in own words) Main method for macro analysis Collects quantitative (allow classification and measurement) and qualitative data (open questions)

Answer 22

+ Quick and cheap means of gathering large amounts of data from large sample, geographically dispersed + Respondents complete and return questionnaires themselves - no need to recruit and train interviewers or observers to collect the data + Data is easy to quantify particularly where pre-coded, closed questions used and can be processed quickly by computer to identify relationships between variables

Answer 23

+ a standardised and fixed yardstick that can be used by any researcher - all respondents given identical instructions, same questions, in same order, with the same options for answers - easily repeated + Differences in answers can be assumed to be a reflection of real diffrences between respondnents - with postal and online questionnaires unlike interviews there is no researcher present to influnce the respondents answers

Answer 24

+ useful for testing hypotheses about cause and effect relationships + Attractive to positivists-enable possible causes to be identified as they take a scientific approach seeking to discover laws of cause and effect

Answer 25

+ Positivists prefer it as they are a detached and objective method where sociolgists personal involvement with respondents are kept to a minimum

Answer 26

+ better chance of having truly representaive results-collect information from a large sample of people, allowing findings to be generalised to the wider target population

Answer 27

+ Although they may ask intrusive or personal questions, respondents are under no obligation to answer and their anonynmity is guaranteed + Pose fewer ethical issues than most other methods

Answer 28

- Data tends to be limited and superficial (tend to be brief to ensure respondents complete and return them limiting amount of information that can be gathered) - May sometimes be necessary to offer incentives to persuade respondents to participate-costly - With postal and online the research cannot guarantee potential respondent actually received or whether a completed questionnaire was actually returned and completed by the person it was addressed to

Answer 29

Those returning their questionnaires may be different to those who do not - results will be distorted and unrepresentative from which no valid generalisations can be made Improve response through: -If follow up questionnaires are sent or if collected by hand but adds to cost and time

Answer 30

Inflexible as new areas of interest tht come up in the research cannot be explored

Answer 31

Provide a picture of social reality at only one point in time therefore do not provide fully valid picture because they do not capture the way peoples behaviour and attitudes change This snapshot contrasts with moving picture of social life that can be gained from participant observation

Answer 32

Interpretivists argue this data reflects validity and does not give a true picture of what has been studied as don't allow the sociologist to get close to subjects and share their meanings - this is the most detached method as it involves no direct contact This means there is no way to clarify what the questions mean or to deal with misunderstandings and misinterpretations

Answer 33

Gathering data by asking questions depend on respondents willingness and ability to provide full and accurate answers - problems of validity are created when respondents give limited answers Respondents may be dishonest, forget, not know, not understand or try to please or second guess the researcher IN CONTRAST observational methods allow the sociologist to see for him/herself what the subjects actually do rather than what they say they do

Answer 34

Interpretivists argue questionnaires are more likely to impose researches own meanings that reveal those of the respondent: by choosing which questions to ask, how to ask them, predetermined options for answering, they have decided what is important If open questions are asked similar but non-identical answers may get lumped together in same category for analysis, distorting respondents meanings and undermining validity of the data

Answer 35

Overt - know you’re being observed Covert - don’t know (researcher may be undercover)

Answer 36

When participants change their behaviour So is less valid

Answer 37

The template used to categorise behaviour Pre determined behaviour you’re looking for

Answer 38

Allows more control Easier to replicate All data collected is relevant (planned) Produces quantitative data (positivists)

Answer 39

Avoid bias Can become too problematic if they become too involved It may lead to them leading and shaping the group

Answer 40

May have little knowledge of the group making them suspicious May result in changes in patterns within the group as a result of them joining If social status differs from the group (class, ethnicity etc) Hard to find contact to get you in with the group

Answer 41

Questionnaires are fixed whereas PO is a fluid method meaning they are spontaneous and answers can be found for questions that later arise

Answer 42

They aren’t scientific Researchers may over identify with participants creating bias - seeing things from their point of view or may draw on their personal experiences shaped by the group More subjective-don’t remain detached Hawthorne effect

Answer 43

+ More flexible method - could gain greater depth and detail - qualitative + Less chance of Hawthorne effect in covert - forget presence in overt if research is continuous - Interviewer bias occurs - Not everything may be reported-longer they’re there cease identifying things as they become more of a norm - Subjective

Answer 44

If researcher becomes over involved or over idnetifjes with the group they are studying Role of researcher diminishes

Answer 45

+ Can get a better depth of understanding + Less likely to change behaviour - Requires keeping up an act and having detailed knowledge before joining - Cannot take notes openly - must rely on memory and opportunity to write in secret - risk of being discovered - Immoral to deceive - Researcher may have to participate in illegal or immoral activities-legal responsibility to report them

Answer 46

POSITIVISTS - structured - formulaic - more reliable-can replicate bc they're standardised - utilise larger samples making generalisations possible - greater detachment generating more reliable valid data INTERPRETIVISTS - unstructured - naturalistic conversation-more humanistic, increases validity - allow concepts and meanings to be clarified-enable issues to be explored as they allow a rapport - mirroring life as it also isn’t ordered

Answer 47

Structured NPO Use a structured observational schedule to categorise systematically what happens The schedule is a pre determined list of behaviours or situations sociologists are interested in Each time the behaviour happens it is recorded Produces quantitative data from which patterns trends and conclusions can be drawn

Answer 48

Getting in, staying in, getting out Whether to be an overt or covert observer Getting out

Answer 49

1 - Once in, need to be able to stay in to complete study, can be key problem as have to be both involved in group (to understand it fully but detached from group to remain objective and unbiased) - danger is becoming too involved or going native-no longer objective observer but a member 2 - Preserve detachment to avoid bias but by remaining detached risk not understanding events they observe-striking a balance is difficult 3 - the longer they’re with group the less strange it’s ways become-after a while cease to notice things that would have struck them as unusual or noteworthy at earlier stage - become non-observing participator

Answer 50

In practical terms getting out at end of study presents fewer problems than getting in and staying in - can simply stop and leave Leaving a group that has become close can be difficult as can be re entering their normal life These problems can be made worse if the research is conducted on and off over a period of time with multiple crossings between worlds Loyalty may prevent them from fully disclosing everything they have learnt - fear this might harm members eg/criminals- prosecution

Answer 51

Required to keep up an act and may call for detailed knowledge of the groups way of life before joining it Always risk of their cover being blown by even a trivial mistake Sociologist can’t take notes openly and must rely on memory and opportunity to write them in secret They cannot ask naive but important questions and there is still some scope for the Hawthorne effect - presence of a new member to group can change behaviour

Answer 52

These often conflict with the practical advantage of observing natural behaviour Immoral to deceive people, obtaining information by pretending to be their friend or in the same boat Sociologist may have to lie about their reasons for leaving the group when they have completed research May have to participate in immoral or illegal activities as part of their cover role and as witnesses to such activities - may have a moral or legal duty to intervene or report them

Answer 53

VALID - rich qualitative data that provides picture of how people really behave-gives authentic and valid account of social actors world (questionnaire-what people say may be different to what they do) INSIGHT - best way to truly understand something is to experience it aka personal or subjective understanding, verstehen (putting yourself in someone else’s shoes) FLEXIBILITY - very flexible - instead of fixed hypothesis and set questions allows them to enter with relatively open mind about what they’ll find - new situations encountered new explanations developed, new directions possible - discover things other methods may miss PRACTICAL - may be only viable method for studying certain groups particularly deviant groups who wouldn't co operate - enables rapport, gain their trust - successful when looking at eg/outsider groups - a useful method to reveal realities, where questioning would be ineffective INTERPRETIVISTS favour as its useful tool for examining micro level interactions and meanings first hand

Answer 54

PRACTICAL - very time consuming-personally stressful and demanding (particularly covert have to be trained to notice sociologically relevant info)-requires observational and interpersonal skills not everyone has-social status and personal characteristics may limit types of groups studied-many groups may not cooperate (so covert done) ETHICAL - deceiving to obtain info about them and participating in illegal or immoral activities in course of research REPRESENTATIVE - usually very small and sample selected haphazardly-not provide sound basis for generalising-doubtful how much insights are externally valid BIAS AND LACK OBJECTIVE - risk of too involved and going native difficult to remain objective one sided biased view may emerge-loyalty or fear of reprisals lead to them concealing sensitive info so denied full objective account-biased towards subject viewpoint VALIDITY - positivists argue provides subjective biased impressions-Hawthorne effect (defeats main aim: produce naturalistic account of human behaviour)-doesn’t say how it is rather as observer sees it, what they see as worthy of recording which is likely to fit with their pre existing views and prejudices LACK OF CONCEPT STRUCTURE - structural sociologists argue it ignores wider structural forces that shape our behaviour-only seeing things through actors eyes never give complete picture-unaware of structural forces shaping their behaviour

Answer 55

A compromise between the more structured research methods and the more unstructured in depth methods Can be adapted to meet theoretical and practical preferences of different sociologists so are popular research tool due to flexibility

Answer 56

- more expensive and time consuming than questionnaires - argued presence of interviewer could potentially influence nature responses given - social status of researcher could impact whole nature of interview, researcher could direct responses, intentionally or unintentionally, and, consciously or unconsciously, respondents give type of answer they believe the researcher is looking for - interviewer bias - interviewer bias can never be totally eliminated from interviewer research because interviews are interactive situations

Answer 57

+ Training interviewers is straightforward + Results easily quantified as questions usually closed and pre coded therefore they're suitable for hypothesis testing - More costly than questionnaires + Surveys using SIs can cover a large sample (-but not as great as postal or online questionnaires) - More costly than questionnaires

Answer 58

+ usually high response rate-people find it difficult to turn down face to face request-increases chances of gaining representative sample therefore providing basis for making generalisations - those who participate may be untypical which would produce unrepresentative data, undermining validity of any generalisations made

Answer 59

VALIDITY - closed questions reduce validity of responses as freedom of interviewees is restricted - may not be provided with a relevant pre coded answer and is little scope to clarify misunderstandings - interview is a social interaction so is always a risk that researcher will impact answers RELIABILITY + Reliable-standardised and controlled so can be repeated - Answers can easily be compared and similarities and differences identified

Answer 60

STRUCTURED Result of standardised questions and predetermined responses - impacts validity UNSTRUCTURED Researcher can formulate new ideas, themes, questions and hypotheses and put them to test as they arise during the course of interview

Answer 61

Researcher is dominant and in control of interview - feminists argue that this mirrors women's subordination in wider society Feminists and interpretivists favour unstructured interviews which enable the researcher to build a more equal and collaborative relationship based on trust, empathy and support

Answer 62

Informality allows researcher to develop a rapport with interviewee - put interviewee at ease and encourage them to open up Useful when studying sensitive issues - Dobash and Dobash used them to study domestic violence

Answer 63

Unlike SIs they provide great freedom and scope for interviewee to speak about things they feel are important and relevant to research in their own terms This means they're more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data Researchers probing can help formulate and develop interviewees thoughts more clearly

Answer 64

Because questions are open ended and exploratory as in an ordinary conversation researchers can start the interview with relatively little subject knowledge on the issue being researched Some use them as a starting point to develop their initial ideas about a topic before going on to use more structured methods of investigation

Answer 65

+ can be practical + generally a high response rate + reliable - can be impractical - costly - response rate - those participating may be unrepresentative and untypical - lack validity - restricted answers and researcher might impact on the answers - feminist criticisms - researcher dominant and in control

Answer 66

+ Rapport and sensitivity-can check understanding + Interviewee can produce fresh insights and valid data + Flexible-can explore unfamiliar topics - practical problems - take a long time, training needs to be more thorough, need good interpersonal skills - rarely representative - not reliable - not standardised - cannot be quantified - information can be distorted due to interaction - invalid

Answer 67

UIs are not reliable as they are not standardised as each interview is unique Therefore its impossible for another researcher to replicate the interviews and check findings

Answer 68

Because questions are open they cannot be quantified This means they aren't useful for establishing cause and effect relationships and hypothesis testing that positivists prefer

Answer 69

- INTERVIEWER BIAS - interviewers may consciously or unconsciously influence answers (facial expressions, body language/interviewer identifies too closely) - ARTIFICIALITY - still not a normal conversation no matter how relaxed-under artificial conditions its sometimes doubtful whether truthful answers are gained-follow up interviews can check and improve validity of answers - STATUS AND POWER INEQUALITIES - inequalities between them impact interviewee honesty and willingness to answer-data less valid (eg/class, age, gender shape and impact)-try to ensure they're culturally matched - CULTURAL DIFFERENCES - lead to misunderstandings bc of different meanings attached to words-ensure they're culturally matched - SOCIAL DESIRABILITY EFFECT - people often seek approval-try to present themselves in a positive light - ETHICAL ISSUES-ethical but interviewee may feel under pressure to answer

Answer 70

+ develop rapport-natural so interpretivists like + less time consuming-less costly and consenus created (relaxed-discuss ideas in greater detail)-flexible - interviewees feel peer pressure so don't express own opinions (feel uncomfortable), others act up-dominate and mock - positivists critical as they aren't standardised - not replicable or generalisable - interview may go off topic-impractical, time consuming - may conform to group norms-less valid - unable to sit in large groups (eg/ sensitive to noise)

Answer 71

Observing people with their consent Used when studying interactions in organisations such as schools and workplaces etc Hawthorne effect came about from an ONPO study which has been made to make researchers keen to minimise their intrusion in the research process - if able to be unobtrusive they will be able to produce valid findings To enhance validity: Couple genuine sensitivity to surroundings with research technique that is minimally obtrusive

Answer 72

+ valid research findings produced if allowances made + Positivist like - quantify and categorise data + ethical-participants know they're being observed - impact bc of researchers known presence-Hawthorne effect leading to invalid data - time consuming