Research Methods Flashcards
Sociologists use a wide variety of different research methods and sources to obtain data about society. What can they be classified into? (Types of data)
Primary and secondary sources
Quantitative and qualitative data
What is primary data? Give an advantage and a disadvantage
What is secondary data? Give an advantage and disadvantage
PRIMARY
information not present before research began-produced by researcher first hand
+ sociologists will be able to gather precisely the information they need to test their hypotheses
- how we doing so can be time consuming and expensive
SECONDARY
data which already exists
+ can be quick and cheap way of doing research
- however it may have been produced for different reasons
What is qualitative data? Give some examples
QUALITATIVE
richer and more in-depth picture of social life, feel of what somethings like
- observations of teacher-pupil interactions
- quotes from interviews on how black pupils feel labelled
QUANTITATIVE
In numerical form, can be analysed, useful for quantifying strength of relationships between different factors/variables
- proportion of young people from MC backgrounds who go to uni
- league tables showing schools achievement data
What data do sociologists ideally want? Explain
Valid and reliable data
VALIDITY - the accuracy of a study or its results and whether it can be generalised (presenting true, genuine picture-getting closer to truth)
RELIABILITY - different researchers can replicate same findings
Data may be reliable but not valid
Eg/ positions of schools in league table may be based on reliable achievement data but it may not represent a valid picture of the school (it’s standards of teaching)
What is the acronym used for factors influencing choice of research methods?
PET
Practical issues
Ethical issues
Theoretical issues
What are the practical issues influencing the choice of research methods? Explain
1 - TIME AND MONEY
Different methods require different amounts of time and money-may influence a sociologists choice
2 - FUNDING BODY
Person funding research dictates how want research to be conducted, what form the results should be in and duration of research
3 - PERSONAL SKILLS AND SOCIAL STATUS
Sociologists own personality, character and status may impact on ability to use different methods
Eg/ interacting with someone similar, can relate and empathise-Dobash and Dobash - only the wife could go into women’s refuges
4 - RESEARCH OPPORTUNITY
Opportunity turns up unexpectedly or is planned well in advance-impacts suitability of certain methods
Eg/ spend time designing, furnish findings, achieve great depth
What are the ETHICAL issues influencing the choice of research methods? Explain
ICPV
1 - INFORMED CONSENT
Given opportunity to agree or refuse to participate with some info of study offered so are fully informed/not deceived
2 - CONFIDENTIALITY AND PRIVACY
Respect privacy-identity and personal information should be kept confidential
3 - PROTECTION
Need to be aware of possible effects of their work and where possible should try anticipate and prevent any harmful consequences
4 - VULNERABLE GROUPS
Special care when participants are vulnerable (eg/age, physical or mental health)
What are ethical issues?
moral principles dictating what is right and wrong which guide research
What are the THEORETICAL issues influencing the choice of research methods? Explain
- what two contrasting traditions and approaches are within sociology
- what they prefer
INTERPRETIVISTS
- micro (small) analysis
- in depth insight-qualitative data (non-scientific)
- seek to understand social actors meanings
- don’t want to make generalisations
2 contrasting approaches within sociology - positivism and interpretivism with very different views and perspectives of how society works, what drives our behaviour and how research should be conducted (impacts methods and subject)
In regards to THEORETICAL issues, what do positivists and interpretivists prefer?
POSITIVISTS
- analyse quantitative data to discover scientific laws of cause and effect that determine behaviour
- objective, factual and physical data
- remain detached and like macro analysis
INTERPRETIVISTS
- aim to find why people act certain way (what attaches meaning, motivation)-seek subjective understanding
- in depth, detailed data
- bottom up approach
What is the top down and bottom up approach? Which theorist prefers which?
TOP DOWN (positivist) - Society is influential and exerting control to shape behaviour
BOTTOM UP (interpretivist) - Our actions which shape society, we have control (not due to external causes)
In relation to the ethical issues and dilemmas associated with covert participant observation (CPO), give details of a case
HUMPHREYS “Tearoom Trade” - CPO and follow up interviews
Observed gay sexual encounters in public toilets
He wished:
(a) to explain how such encounters and social structure required worked
(b) to investigate rules and meanings attached to the encounters by the participants
Became part of gay scene visiting bars - adopted role of watch queen
Publication attracted controversy
In summary, explain case for supporting and opposing Humphreys research and methods
2 advantages, 3 disadvantages
+ investigated diversity and plurality in the gay community shedding light on a little known segment of society - brought an understanding of an issue which American society had done much to repress
+ dispelled stereotypes and myths
- Unethical and illegal behaviour of police officers-unprofessional-could be disciplined and fired for such rule breaking
- Involved invasion of privacy, deception and manipulation which undermines trust-research doesn’t make up for all manipulation and lies he told
- Dangerous to gay men that were closeted for their own personal safety-research outed their sexuality, could have led to them being in danger due to the invasion of privacy
When designing their research, first they have to decide which topic they wish to study, what will this be guided by?
Once a sociologist has decided on the topic of their research they need to decide who should be included in their research - their target/research population, what is this?
- Whether they have been told to research it or not
- Your interests
- Current affairs in the world
- Target population refers to all people who are relevant to the research
Most research either have a general aim or specific hypothesis to test, what is an aim and a hypothesis?
Give 2 advantages of having a hypothesis
AIM
Identifies what the sociologist intends to study and hopes to achieve by conducting the research
HYPOTHESIS
A predicted statement that can be tested
Either rejected or made valid
Sociological ideas should be operationalised so they can be measured
+ give direction and focus to the questions to be asked
+ evidence gathered shows the hypothesis is false then it must be discarded and attention could be directed to new directions for research
In order to test a hypothesis, abstract ideas central to the hypothesis should be operationalised, what does this mean?
Make ideas clear so they can be tested and made clear
Eg/ material deprivation
Doing what you mean by the concept
Once sociologists have “operational” definition of concept they can then write questions that measure it before research starts
What is a pilot study?
A small version of the study
Done to see if the study is viable, test if there’s any ethical issues or to see how the bigger study might turn out
After carrying out pilot study it should be possible to finalise questionnaire or interview schedule
Once a sociologist has decided on the topic of their research they need to decide who should be included in their research - their target/research population, what is this?
Target population refers to all people who are relevant to the research
For practical reasons sociological research cannot involve the entire relevant population, what is used? What is this?
A sample-small sub group drawn from wider target population
If the sample is representative, generalisations can be made to the entire target population
What is meant by a generalisation?
Where findings from a single study can be applied to the rest of the target population
- can only be made if the sample is a representative cross section of the larger population
What is a sampling frame?
A list or a database of the relevant research population
In some cases it does not exist
What is representative sampling and what are the 4 types?
Employ various sampling techniques to gain a representative sample of the research population (more valid, draw accurate conclusions, accurate cross section of larger target population)
Random sampling
Quasi/systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Quota sampling
Random sampling is a form of representative sampling, what is this?
Sample selected purely by chance-everyone has equal chance of being selected
A large enough random sample should reflect characteristics of the whole research population however not all are large enough to ensure representativeness
Quasi random/systematic smapling is a type of represntatuve sampling, what is this?
Where every nth person in the sampling frame is selected
Stratified random sampling is a type of representative sampling, what is this?
Researcher first breaks down population in sampling frame by age, gender, ethnicity etc
Sample is then created in same proportions
Quota sampling is a type of representative sampling, what is this?
Population is stratified like in stratified random sampling, then each is given a quota which they have to fill with respondents who fit these characteristics
Interviewer keeps at this task until their quota is filled
Why might it not be possible to always have a representative sample (non-representative sampling)?What is non-representative sampling? What are the 2 types?
May not be possible because:
- social characteristics (what’s relevant eg/ gender, class, ethnicity) of research population may not be known and therefore it would be impossible to create a sample that was an exact cross section of it
- potential respondents may refuse to participate
Not all studies use representative sampling techniques, even when its possible to use representative sampling some sociologists still may choose not to do so because of their theoretical/methodological perspective
- Snowball sampling
- Opportunity sampling
Snowball sampling is a type of non-representaive sampling, what is it?
Involves collecting a sample by contacting key number of individuals who are asked to suggest others who would participate in the research
Opportunity sampling is a type of non-representative sample, what is it? Give an advantage and disadvantage
Involves choosing from individuals easiest to access
+ individuals are easy to access - practical
- unlikely to be representative sample
Outline two reasons why sociolgists might prefer to collect primary data in their research
Can achieve ore precise data directly linked to thir hypothesis
Secondary data may have incorrect details
Outline three PRACTICAL factors that might influence a sociologists choice of research method
It may be possible to find or create a sampling frame for that particular research population
Potential respondents may refuse to participate
Costs limited
Outline two ETHICAL issues involved when conducting covert observational research
Invasion of privacy
Betrayl of trust
Outline why a positivist sociologist has a preference for quantitative data
They study large groups/samples so its easier to look at and compare results
Explain one reason why snowball sampling may be used
Useful to get a sample together quickly
To contact a sample which may otherwise be difficult to find
What are the 3 types of experiments?
Lab experiments
(Positivist prefer-objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology)
Field experiments
Comparitive method
What is a lab experiment? Who in particular likes lab experiments and why?
- scientist manipulates variables in which they are interested in to discover what effect they have - can establish a cause and effect relationship
- allows them to predict accurately what will happen in future under specified conditions
- can be replicated considering its completely reliable, producing same results each time
- very detached method - personal feelings and opinions have no effect
Positivists-see sociology as a science-see it as an objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology
However there are many PRACTICAL reasons why lab experiments are rarely used in sociologists, even by positivists, what are these reasons?
DISADVANTAGES
- Society is very complex-impossible to identify, let alone control all the variables that impact behaviour
- small scale nature reduces their representativeness
- THEORETICALLY - artificial environments produce artificial results (lab is not normal or natural environment therefore behaviour in these conditions isn’t true to life or valid)
- If people know they are being studied this knowledge is likely to impact behaviour (change it - Hawthorne effect)
What is a field experiment? Include one advantage and two disadvantages
Take place in the subjects natural surroundings - makes research more valid and realistic
+To avoid the Hawthorne effect those involved aren’t generally aware they’re taking part
- Critics argue this makes it unethical
- They are more realistic so less scope for control over variables that might be operating
What is the comparative method? How does it work in two steps? Include 3 advantages and 1 disadvantage
A “thought” experiment-does not involve researcher actually experimenting on real people - discover cause and effect
- Identify two groups of people that are alike in all major respects except for one variable we’re interested in
- Compare the two groups to see if the difference between them has any effect
+ ethical
+ avoids artificiality
+ can be used to study past events
- gives researcher even less control over variables-even less certain whether this method discovers cause and effect
Why is it importnat to have a control group in an experiment?
So a clear cause and effect relatioship can be established
Provide two reasons why lab experiments may produce reliable data
Variables are controlled
Scientists personal feelings have no effect
Why might it be necessary to deceive the subjects of an experiment?
So there is not an impact on their natutral behaviour
Gives better chances of findings being more valid
Why would interpretivists reject the experimental method?
They prefer more qualitative data
Doesn’t give natural results - low validity
What is the acronym used to evaluate research methods?
P E R V E R T
Practical factors Ethical Reliability Validity Examples Representativeness Theoretical (would positivists or interpretivists use it?)
What are questionnaires? What type/s of data do questionnaires collect?
List of pre determined questions
Can be administered by hand, post or online
Closed questions (pre determined range of responses) and open questions (answer in own words)
Main method for macro analysis
Collects quantitative (allow classification and measurement) and qualitative data (open questions)
What are the PRACTICAL advantages of questionnaires?
+ Quick and cheap means of gathering large amounts of data from large sample, geographically dispersed
+ Respondents complete and return questionnaires themselves - no need to recruit and train interviewers or observers to collect the data
+ Data is easy to quantify particularly where pre-coded, closed questions used and can be processed quickly by computer to identify relationships between variables
What are the RELIABILITY advantages of questionnaires?
+ a standardised and fixed yardstick that can be used by any researcher - all respondents given identical instructions, same questions, in same order, with the same options for answers - easily repeated
+ Differences in answers can be assumed to be a reflection of real diffrences between respondnents - with postal and online questionnaires unlike interviews there is no researcher present to influnce the respondents answers
What are the hypothesis testing advantages of questionnaires?
+ useful for testing hypotheses about cause and effect relationships
+ Attractive to positivists-enable possible causes to be identified as they take a scientific approach seeking to discover laws of cause and effect
What are the detachment and objectivity advantages of questionnaires?
+ Positivists prefer it as they are a detached and objective method where sociolgists personal involvement with respondents are kept to a minimum
What are the represntative advantages of questionnaires?
+ better chance of having truly representaive results-collect information from a large sample of people, allowing findings to be generalised to the wider target population
What are the ethical advantages of questionnaires?
+ Although they may ask intrusive or personal questions, respondents are under no obligation to answer and their anonynmity is guaranteed
+ Pose fewer ethical issues than most other methods
What are the practical disadvantages of questionnaires?
- Data tends to be limited and superficial (tend to be brief to ensure respondents complete and return them limiting amount of information that can be gathered)
- May sometimes be necessary to offer incentives to persuade respondents to participate-costly
- With postal and online the research cannot guarantee potential respondent actually received or whether a completed questionnaire was actually returned and completed by the person it was addressed to
How is low response rate a disadvantage of questionnaires? How can a higher response rate be obtained?
Those returning their questionnaires may be different to those who do not - results will be distorted and unrepresentative from which no valid generalisations can be made
Improve response through:
-If follow up questionnaires are sent or if collected by hand but adds to cost and time
How is inflexibility a disadvantage of questionnaires?
Inflexible as new areas of interest tht come up in the research cannot be explored
How is snapshot picture a disadvantage of questionnaires?
Provide a picture of social reality at only one point in time therefore do not provide fully valid picture because they do not capture the way peoples behaviour and attitudes change
This snapshot contrasts with moving picture of social life that can be gained from participant observation
How is detachemnt a disadvantage of questionnaires?
Interpretivists argue this data reflects validity and does not give a true picture of what has been studied as don’t allow the sociologist to get close to subjects and share their meanings - this is the most detached method as it involves no direct contact
This means there is no way to clarify what the questions mean or to deal with misunderstandings and misinterpretations
How is lying, forgetting and right answerism a disadvantage of questionnaires?
Gathering data by asking questions depend on respondents willingness and ability to provide full and accurate answers - problems of validity are created when respondents give limited answers
Respondents may be dishonest, forget, not know, not understand or try to please or second guess the researcher
IN CONTRAST observational methods allow the sociologist to see for him/herself what the subjects actually do rather than what they say they do
How is imposing the researchers meanings a disadvantage of questionnaires?
Interpretivists argue questionnaires are more likely to impose researches own meanings that reveal those of the respondent: by choosing which questions to ask, how to ask them, predetermined options for answering, they have decided what is important
If open questions are asked similar but non-identical answers may get lumped together in same category for analysis, distorting respondents meanings and undermining validity of the data
Explain the difference between overt and covert observation
Overt - know you’re being observed
Covert - don’t know (researcher may be undercover)
Explain what is meant by the Hawthorne effect
When participants change their behaviour
So is less valid
What is a structured observation schedule?
The template used to categorise behaviour
Pre determined behaviour you’re looking for
Suggest 4 reasons why sociologists sometimes use structured observation
Allows more control
Easier to replicate
All data collected is relevant (planned)
Produces quantitative data (positivists)
Why should researchers using PO avoid leadership roles within the group they are studying?
Avoid bias
Can become too problematic if they become too involved
It may lead to them leading and shaping the group
Suggest two reasons why it might be difficult for the observer to gain the trust of the group they wish to study
May have little knowledge of the group making them suspicious
May result in changes in patterns within the group as a result of them joining
If social status differs from the group (class, ethnicity etc)
Hard to find contact to get you in with the group
Suggest a reason why PO can be described as a more flexible method than questionnaires
Questionnaires are fixed whereas PO is a fluid method meaning they are spontaneous and answers can be found for questions that later arise
Why do critics argue that PO studies lack objectivity?
They aren’t scientific
Researchers may over identify with participants creating bias - seeing things from their point of view or may draw on their personal experiences shaped by the group
More subjective-don’t remain detached
Hawthorne effect
Suggest two reasons why PO may produce valid data
Why do some critics argue that PO does not produce valid data?
+ More flexible method - could gain greater depth and detail - qualitative
+ Less chance of Hawthorne effect in covert - forget presence in overt if research is continuous
- Interviewer bias occurs
- Not everything may be reported-longer they’re there cease identifying things as they become more of a norm
- Subjective
Explain what is meant by going native
If researcher becomes over involved or over idnetifjes with the group they are studying
Role of researcher diminishes
Suggest two advantages of using covert observation
Suggest two practical and two ethical problems of covert observation
+ Can get a better depth of understanding
+ Less likely to change behaviour
- Requires keeping up an act and having detailed knowledge before joining
- Cannot take notes openly - must rely on memory and opportunity to write in secret - risk of being discovered
- Immoral to deceive
- Researcher may have to participate in illegal or immoral activities-legal responsibility to report them
Which theorist prefers which type of interview and why?
POSITIVISTS - structured
- formulaic
- more reliable-can replicate bc they’re standardised
- utilise larger samples making generalisations possible
- greater detachment generating more reliable valid data
INTERPRETIVISTS - unstructured
- naturalistic conversation-more humanistic, increases validity
- allow concepts and meanings to be clarified-enable issues to be explored as they allow a rapport
- mirroring life as it also isn’t ordered
Which observational method is preferred by positivists?
Structured NPO
Use a structured observational schedule to categorise systematically what happens
The schedule is a pre determined list of behaviours or situations sociologists are interested in
Each time the behaviour happens it is recorded
Produces quantitative data from which patterns trends and conclusions can be drawn
What are the two key issues sociologists have when conducting a participant observation PO study?
Getting in, staying in, getting out
Whether to be an overt or covert observer
Getting out
Explain how staying in when conducting a participant observation may be an issue
1 - Once in, need to be able to stay in to complete study, can be key problem as have to be both involved in group (to understand it fully but detached from group to remain objective and unbiased)
- danger is becoming too involved or going native-no longer objective observer but a member
2 - Preserve detachment to avoid bias but by remaining detached risk not understanding events they observe-striking a balance is difficult
3 - the longer they’re with group the less strange it’s ways become-after a while cease to notice things that would have struck them as unusual or noteworthy at earlier stage - become non-observing participator
Explain how getting out when conducting a participant observation may be an issue
In practical terms getting out at end of study presents fewer problems than getting in and staying in - can simply stop and leave
Leaving a group that has become close can be difficult as can be re entering their normal life
These problems can be made worse if the research is conducted on and off over a period of time with multiple crossings between worlds
Loyalty may prevent them from fully disclosing everything they have learnt - fear this might harm members eg/criminals- prosecution
Explain how practical issues in regards to whether or not a sociologist should be an overt or covert observer could pose as a key issue when conducting participant observation
CPO
Required to keep up an act and may call for detailed knowledge of the groups way of life before joining it
Always risk of their cover being blown by even a trivial mistake
Sociologist can’t take notes openly and must rely on memory and opportunity to write them in secret
They cannot ask naive but important questions and there is still some scope for the Hawthorne effect - presence of a new member to group can change behaviour
Explain how ethical issues in regards to whether or not a sociologist should be an overt or covert observer could pose as a key issue when conducting participant observation
CPO
These often conflict with the practical advantage of observing natural behaviour
Immoral to deceive people, obtaining information by pretending to be their friend or in the same boat
Sociologist may have to lie about their reasons for leaving the group when they have completed research
May have to participate in immoral or illegal activities as part of their cover role and as witnesses to such activities - may have a moral or legal duty to intervene or report them
What are the advantages of participant observation?
VALID - rich qualitative data that provides picture of how people really behave-gives authentic and valid account of social actors world (questionnaire-what people say may be different to what they do)
INSIGHT - best way to truly understand something is to experience it aka personal or subjective understanding, verstehen (putting yourself in someone else’s shoes)
FLEXIBILITY - very flexible - instead of fixed hypothesis and set questions allows them to enter with relatively open mind about what they’ll find - new situations encountered new explanations developed, new directions possible - discover things other methods may miss
PRACTICAL - may be only viable method for studying certain groups particularly deviant groups who wouldn’t co operate - enables rapport, gain their trust - successful when looking at eg/outsider groups - a useful method to reveal realities, where questioning would be ineffective
INTERPRETIVISTS favour as its useful tool for examining micro level interactions and meanings first hand
What are the disadvantages of participant observation?
PRACTICAL - very time consuming-personally stressful and demanding (particularly covert have to be trained to notice sociologically relevant info)-requires observational and interpersonal skills not everyone has-social status and personal characteristics may limit types of groups studied-many groups may not cooperate (so covert done)
ETHICAL - deceiving to obtain info about them and participating in illegal or immoral activities in course of research
REPRESENTATIVE - usually very small and sample selected haphazardly-not provide sound basis for generalising-doubtful how much insights are externally valid
BIAS AND LACK OBJECTIVE - risk of too involved and going native difficult to remain objective one sided biased view may emerge-loyalty or fear of reprisals lead to them concealing sensitive info so denied full objective account-biased towards subject viewpoint
VALIDITY - positivists argue provides subjective biased impressions-Hawthorne effect (defeats main aim: produce naturalistic account of human behaviour)-doesn’t say how it is rather as observer sees it, what they see as worthy of recording which is likely to fit with their pre existing views and prejudices
LACK OF CONCEPT STRUCTURE - structural sociologists argue it ignores wider structural forces that shape our behaviour-only seeing things through actors eyes never give complete picture-unaware of structural forces shaping their behaviour
What is an interview?
A compromise between the more structured research methods and the more unstructured in depth methods
Can be adapted to meet theoretical and practical preferences of different sociologists so are popular research tool due to flexibility
What are the disadvantages of interviews in general?
- more expensive and time consuming than questionnaires
- argued presence of interviewer could potentially influence nature responses given
- social status of researcher could impact whole nature of interview, researcher could direct responses, intentionally or unintentionally, and, consciously or unconsciously, respondents give type of answer they believe the researcher is looking for - interviewer bias
- interviewer bias can never be totally eliminated from interviewer research because interviews are interactive situations
What are the practcal issues of structured interviews?
+ Training interviewers is straightforward
+ Results easily quantified as questions usually closed and pre coded therefore they’re suitable for hypothesis testing
- More costly than questionnaires
+ Surveys using SIs can cover a large sample (-but not as great as postal or online questionnaires)
- More costly than questionnaires
What is the response rate for structured interviews?
+ usually high response rate-people find it difficult to turn down face to face request-increases chances of gaining representative sample therefore providing basis for making generalisations
- those who participate may be untypical which would produce unrepresentative data, undermining validity of any generalisations made
What is the validity and reliability like for structured interviews?
VALIDITY
- closed questions reduce validity of responses as freedom of interviewees is restricted
- may not be provided with a relevant pre coded answer and is little scope to clarify misunderstandings
- interview is a social interaction so is always a risk that researcher will impact answers
RELIABILITY
+ Reliable-standardised and controlled so can be repeated
- Answers can easily be compared and similarities and differences identified
How are structured interviews inflexible? How does this contrast to unstructured interviews?
STRUCTURED
Result of standardised questions and predetermined responses - impacts validity
UNSTRUCTURED
Researcher can formulate new ideas, themes, questions and hypotheses and put them to test as they arise during the course of interview
What are the feminist criticisims of structured interviews?
Researcher is dominant and in control of interview - feminists argue that this mirrors women’s subordination in wider society
Feminists and interpretivists favour unstructured interviews which enable the researcher to build a more equal and collaborative relationship based on trust, empathy and support
How is rapport and sensitivity an advantage of unstructured interviews?
Informality allows researcher to develop a rapport with interviewee - put interviewee at ease and encourage them to open up
Useful when studying sensitive issues - Dobash and Dobash used them to study domestic violence
How is the interviewees view an advantage of unstructured interviews?
Unlike SIs they provide great freedom and scope for interviewee to speak about things they feel are important and relevant to research in their own terms
This means they’re more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data
Researchers probing can help formulate and develop interviewees thoughts more clearly
How is exploring unfamiliar topics and advantage of unstructured interviews?
Because questions are open ended and exploratory as in an ordinary conversation researchers can start the interview with relatively little subject knowledge on the issue being researched
Some use them as a starting point to develop their initial ideas about a topic before going on to use more structured methods of investigation
What are 4 advantages and 4 disadvantages of structured interviews?
Positivists prefer
+ can be practical
+ generally a high response rate
+ reliable
- can be impractical - costly
- response rate - those participating may be unrepresentative and untypical
- lack validity - restricted answers and researcher might impact on the answers
- feminist criticisms - researcher dominant and in control
What are 3 advantages and 5 disadvantages of unstructured interviews?
Feminists and interpretivists prefer
+ Rapport and sensitivity-can check understanding
+ Interviewee can produce fresh insights and valid data
+ Flexible-can explore unfamiliar topics
- practical problems - take a long time, training needs to be more thorough, need good interpersonal skills
- rarely representative
- not reliable - not standardised
- cannot be quantified
- information can be distorted due to interaction - invalid
How is reliability a disadvantage of unstructured interviews?
UIs are not reliable as they are not standardised as each interview is unique
Therefore its impossible for another researcher to replicate the interviews and check findings
How is quantification a disadvantage of unstructured interviews?
Because questions are open they cannot be quantified
This means they aren’t useful for establishing cause and effect relationships and hypothesis testing that positivists prefer
What is meant by an interview as a social interaction threatening validity?
6 ways IASCSE
- INTERVIEWER BIAS - interviewers may consciously or unconsciously influence answers (facial expressions, body language/interviewer identifies too closely)
- ARTIFICIALITY - still not a normal conversation no matter how relaxed-under artificial conditions its sometimes doubtful whether truthful answers are gained-follow up interviews can check and improve validity of answers
- STATUS AND POWER INEQUALITIES - inequalities between them impact interviewee honesty and willingness to answer-data less valid (eg/class, age, gender shape and impact)-try to ensure they’re culturally matched
- CULTURAL DIFFERENCES - lead to misunderstandings bc of different meanings attached to words-ensure they’re culturally matched
- SOCIAL DESIRABILITY EFFECT - people often seek approval-try to present themselves in a positive light
- ETHICAL ISSUES-ethical but interviewee may feel under pressure to answer
What are 2 advantages and 5 disadvantages of group interviews?
+ develop rapport-natural so interpretivists like
+ less time consuming-less costly and consenus created (relaxed-discuss ideas in greater detail)-flexible
- interviewees feel peer pressure so don’t express own opinions (feel uncomfortable), others act up-dominate and mock
- positivists critical as they aren’t standardised - not replicable or generalisable
- interview may go off topic-impractical, time consuming
- may conform to group norms-less valid
- unable to sit in large groups (eg/ sensitive to noise)
What is an overt non-participation observational method (ONPO)? What must a researcher do to enhance the validity of what they are able to observe and record?
Observing people with their consent
Used when studying interactions in organisations such as schools and workplaces etc
Hawthorne effect came about from an ONPO study which has been made to make researchers keen to minimise their intrusion in the research process - if able to be unobtrusive they will be able to produce valid findings
To enhance validity:
Couple genuine sensitivity to surroundings with research technique that is minimally obtrusive
What are 3 strengths and 2 weaknessses of ONPO?
+ valid research findings produced if allowances made
+ Positivist like - quantify and categorise data
+ ethical-participants know they’re being observed
- impact bc of researchers known presence-Hawthorne effect leading to invalid data
- time consuming
Explain how getting in when conducting a participant observation may be an issue
FIND IT
