Research Methods Flashcards
Sociologists use a wide variety of different research methods and sources to obtain data about society. What can they be classified into? (Types of data)
Primary and secondary sources
Quantitative and qualitative data
What is primary data? Give an advantage and a disadvantage
What is secondary data? Give an advantage and disadvantage
PRIMARY
information not present before research began-produced by researcher first hand
+ sociologists will be able to gather precisely the information they need to test their hypotheses
- how we doing so can be time consuming and expensive
SECONDARY
data which already exists
+ can be quick and cheap way of doing research
- however it may have been produced for different reasons
What is qualitative data? Give some examples
QUALITATIVE
richer and more in-depth picture of social life, feel of what somethings like
- observations of teacher-pupil interactions
- quotes from interviews on how black pupils feel labelled
QUANTITATIVE
In numerical form, can be analysed, useful for quantifying strength of relationships between different factors/variables
- proportion of young people from MC backgrounds who go to uni
- league tables showing schools achievement data
What data do sociologists ideally want? Explain
Valid and reliable data
VALIDITY - the accuracy of a study or its results and whether it can be generalised (presenting true, genuine picture-getting closer to truth)
RELIABILITY - different researchers can replicate same findings
Data may be reliable but not valid
Eg/ positions of schools in league table may be based on reliable achievement data but it may not represent a valid picture of the school (it’s standards of teaching)
What is the acronym used for factors influencing choice of research methods?
PET
Practical issues
Ethical issues
Theoretical issues
What are the practical issues influencing the choice of research methods? Explain
1 - TIME AND MONEY
Different methods require different amounts of time and money-may influence a sociologists choice
2 - FUNDING BODY
Person funding research dictates how want research to be conducted, what form the results should be in and duration of research
3 - PERSONAL SKILLS AND SOCIAL STATUS
Sociologists own personality, character and status may impact on ability to use different methods
Eg/ interacting with someone similar, can relate and empathise-Dobash and Dobash - only the wife could go into women’s refuges
4 - RESEARCH OPPORTUNITY
Opportunity turns up unexpectedly or is planned well in advance-impacts suitability of certain methods
Eg/ spend time designing, furnish findings, achieve great depth
What are the ETHICAL issues influencing the choice of research methods? Explain
ICPV
1 - INFORMED CONSENT
Given opportunity to agree or refuse to participate with some info of study offered so are fully informed/not deceived
2 - CONFIDENTIALITY AND PRIVACY
Respect privacy-identity and personal information should be kept confidential
3 - PROTECTION
Need to be aware of possible effects of their work and where possible should try anticipate and prevent any harmful consequences
4 - VULNERABLE GROUPS
Special care when participants are vulnerable (eg/age, physical or mental health)
What are ethical issues?
moral principles dictating what is right and wrong which guide research
What are the THEORETICAL issues influencing the choice of research methods? Explain
- what two contrasting traditions and approaches are within sociology
- what they prefer
INTERPRETIVISTS
- micro (small) analysis
- in depth insight-qualitative data (non-scientific)
- seek to understand social actors meanings
- don’t want to make generalisations
2 contrasting approaches within sociology - positivism and interpretivism with very different views and perspectives of how society works, what drives our behaviour and how research should be conducted (impacts methods and subject)
In regards to THEORETICAL issues, what do positivists and interpretivists prefer?
POSITIVISTS
- analyse quantitative data to discover scientific laws of cause and effect that determine behaviour
- objective, factual and physical data
- remain detached and like macro analysis
INTERPRETIVISTS
- aim to find why people act certain way (what attaches meaning, motivation)-seek subjective understanding
- in depth, detailed data
- bottom up approach
What is the top down and bottom up approach? Which theorist prefers which?
TOP DOWN (positivist) - Society is influential and exerting control to shape behaviour
BOTTOM UP (interpretivist) - Our actions which shape society, we have control (not due to external causes)
In relation to the ethical issues and dilemmas associated with covert participant observation (CPO), give details of a case
HUMPHREYS “Tearoom Trade” - CPO and follow up interviews
Observed gay sexual encounters in public toilets
He wished:
(a) to explain how such encounters and social structure required worked
(b) to investigate rules and meanings attached to the encounters by the participants
Became part of gay scene visiting bars - adopted role of watch queen
Publication attracted controversy
In summary, explain case for supporting and opposing Humphreys research and methods
2 advantages, 3 disadvantages
+ investigated diversity and plurality in the gay community shedding light on a little known segment of society - brought an understanding of an issue which American society had done much to repress
+ dispelled stereotypes and myths
- Unethical and illegal behaviour of police officers-unprofessional-could be disciplined and fired for such rule breaking
- Involved invasion of privacy, deception and manipulation which undermines trust-research doesn’t make up for all manipulation and lies he told
- Dangerous to gay men that were closeted for their own personal safety-research outed their sexuality, could have led to them being in danger due to the invasion of privacy
When designing their research, first they have to decide which topic they wish to study, what will this be guided by?
Once a sociologist has decided on the topic of their research they need to decide who should be included in their research - their target/research population, what is this?
- Whether they have been told to research it or not
- Your interests
- Current affairs in the world
- Target population refers to all people who are relevant to the research
Most research either have a general aim or specific hypothesis to test, what is an aim and a hypothesis?
Give 2 advantages of having a hypothesis
AIM
Identifies what the sociologist intends to study and hopes to achieve by conducting the research
HYPOTHESIS
A predicted statement that can be tested
Either rejected or made valid
Sociological ideas should be operationalised so they can be measured
+ give direction and focus to the questions to be asked
+ evidence gathered shows the hypothesis is false then it must be discarded and attention could be directed to new directions for research
In order to test a hypothesis, abstract ideas central to the hypothesis should be operationalised, what does this mean?
Make ideas clear so they can be tested and made clear
Eg/ material deprivation
Doing what you mean by the concept
Once sociologists have “operational” definition of concept they can then write questions that measure it before research starts
What is a pilot study?
A small version of the study
Done to see if the study is viable, test if there’s any ethical issues or to see how the bigger study might turn out
After carrying out pilot study it should be possible to finalise questionnaire or interview schedule
Once a sociologist has decided on the topic of their research they need to decide who should be included in their research - their target/research population, what is this?
Target population refers to all people who are relevant to the research
For practical reasons sociological research cannot involve the entire relevant population, what is used? What is this?
A sample-small sub group drawn from wider target population
If the sample is representative, generalisations can be made to the entire target population
What is meant by a generalisation?
Where findings from a single study can be applied to the rest of the target population
- can only be made if the sample is a representative cross section of the larger population
What is a sampling frame?
A list or a database of the relevant research population
In some cases it does not exist
What is representative sampling and what are the 4 types?
Employ various sampling techniques to gain a representative sample of the research population (more valid, draw accurate conclusions, accurate cross section of larger target population)
Random sampling
Quasi/systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Quota sampling
Random sampling is a form of representative sampling, what is this?
Sample selected purely by chance-everyone has equal chance of being selected
A large enough random sample should reflect characteristics of the whole research population however not all are large enough to ensure representativeness
Quasi random/systematic smapling is a type of represntatuve sampling, what is this?
Where every nth person in the sampling frame is selected
Stratified random sampling is a type of representative sampling, what is this?
Researcher first breaks down population in sampling frame by age, gender, ethnicity etc
Sample is then created in same proportions
Quota sampling is a type of representative sampling, what is this?
Population is stratified like in stratified random sampling, then each is given a quota which they have to fill with respondents who fit these characteristics
Interviewer keeps at this task until their quota is filled
Why might it not be possible to always have a representative sample (non-representative sampling)?What is non-representative sampling? What are the 2 types?
May not be possible because:
- social characteristics (what’s relevant eg/ gender, class, ethnicity) of research population may not be known and therefore it would be impossible to create a sample that was an exact cross section of it
- potential respondents may refuse to participate
Not all studies use representative sampling techniques, even when its possible to use representative sampling some sociologists still may choose not to do so because of their theoretical/methodological perspective
- Snowball sampling
- Opportunity sampling
Snowball sampling is a type of non-representaive sampling, what is it?
Involves collecting a sample by contacting key number of individuals who are asked to suggest others who would participate in the research
Opportunity sampling is a type of non-representative sample, what is it? Give an advantage and disadvantage
Involves choosing from individuals easiest to access
+ individuals are easy to access - practical
- unlikely to be representative sample
Outline two reasons why sociolgists might prefer to collect primary data in their research
Can achieve ore precise data directly linked to thir hypothesis
Secondary data may have incorrect details
Outline three PRACTICAL factors that might influence a sociologists choice of research method
It may be possible to find or create a sampling frame for that particular research population
Potential respondents may refuse to participate
Costs limited
Outline two ETHICAL issues involved when conducting covert observational research
Invasion of privacy
Betrayl of trust
Outline why a positivist sociologist has a preference for quantitative data
They study large groups/samples so its easier to look at and compare results
Explain one reason why snowball sampling may be used
Useful to get a sample together quickly
To contact a sample which may otherwise be difficult to find
What are the 3 types of experiments?
Lab experiments
(Positivist prefer-objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology)
Field experiments
Comparitive method
What is a lab experiment? Who in particular likes lab experiments and why?
- scientist manipulates variables in which they are interested in to discover what effect they have - can establish a cause and effect relationship
- allows them to predict accurately what will happen in future under specified conditions
- can be replicated considering its completely reliable, producing same results each time
- very detached method - personal feelings and opinions have no effect
Positivists-see sociology as a science-see it as an objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology
However there are many PRACTICAL reasons why lab experiments are rarely used in sociologists, even by positivists, what are these reasons?
DISADVANTAGES
- Society is very complex-impossible to identify, let alone control all the variables that impact behaviour
- small scale nature reduces their representativeness
- THEORETICALLY - artificial environments produce artificial results (lab is not normal or natural environment therefore behaviour in these conditions isn’t true to life or valid)
- If people know they are being studied this knowledge is likely to impact behaviour (change it - Hawthorne effect)
What is a field experiment? Include one advantage and two disadvantages
Take place in the subjects natural surroundings - makes research more valid and realistic
+To avoid the Hawthorne effect those involved aren’t generally aware they’re taking part
- Critics argue this makes it unethical
- They are more realistic so less scope for control over variables that might be operating
