research meathods y1 and 2

Question 1

what are case studies

Answer 1

an in depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group or institution or event. Usually an unusual individual e.g. Clive Wearing. or event e.g. events that lead to London riot 2011
-longnitudal usually and usually create qualititive data

Question 2

evaluation of case studies

Answer 2

+ rich and detailed insights on unusual forms of behavior. Preferred to ‘superficial’ forms of that that may be collected from an experiment or questionnaire. They may generate hypothesis for future studies.
-such small sample sizes lead to generalization. Final report is also based on interpretation of researcher. Personal accounts from participants may be subjective to things such as memory decay, inaccurate.

Question 3

what is content analysis?

Answer 3

type of observational research that enables the indirect study of behavior by examining communications that people produce e.g. texts emails words sentences phrases

Question 4

what is coding?

Answer 4

initiate stage of content analysis that includes the communication to be studies is analysed by identifying each instance of the chose categories which may be e.g. phrases.
-quantitative data

Question 5

what is thematic analysis?

Answer 5

qualitative data, form of content analysis.
inductive approach to analysis which involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data, Themes will often emerge once data has been coded. (words that keep ‘cropping’ up as part of the communication is studied.

Question 6

evaluation of coding analysis

Answer 6

+can get around many of the ethical issues normally associated with psychology research. Many of the materials they want to study may already exist within the public domain. These also benefit being high in external validity
-analysis is usually outside of context of communications due to communications being studies indirectly. Therefore there is a danger the researcher may use opinions to shape results or research content.

Question 7

what is the experimental method?

Answer 7

manipulation of IV to measure the effect on DV, they may be lab, field, natural or quasi. Steps usually go: aim, hypothesis, deciding which hypothesis to use and doing the experiment.

Question 8

whats a hypothesis?

Answer 8

clear, precise and testable statement that states the relationship between variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study.

Question 9

non directional hypothesis:

Answer 9

does not state the direction or difference between the relationship, example: people who drink coke differ in terms of talkativeness compared to those who dont drink coke.

Question 10

directional hypothesis:

Answer 10

states the direction and difference between the relationship: people who drink coke become more talkative to people who dont.

Question 11

what is the independent variable?

Answer 11

aspect of experimental situation which is changed or manipulated by the researcher or naturally so they can measure its affect on the DV

Question 12

what is the dependent variable?

Answer 12

variable that is measured by the researcher. any affect on the dv should be caused by the change in the IV.

Question 13

what is operationalisation?

Answer 13

clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured. Operationalised hypothesis example:after drinking 200ml of coke, Ps say more words in the next five mins than Ps who drink water. DIRECTIONAL OPERATIONALISED HYPOTHESIS

Question 14

what are extraneous variables? (research issues)

Answer 14

any other variable other than the IV that affects the DV if it is not controlled.

Question 15

what are confounding variables? (research issues)

Answer 15

kind of Ev where we cannot be sure if the affect is due to an EV or due to the IV. Example,they were chattier because of the energy drink or because they were excited to meet new people.

Question 16

what are demand characteristics (research issues)

Answer 16

any cue from the researcher or situation that may be interpreted by Ps as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to Ps changing their behavior as a result of this.

Question 17

what are investigator effects (research issues)

Answer 17

any unconscious or conscious effect of the investigators behavior on the research outcome. May include, design, study, or interaction with Ps.

Question 18

what is randomization (research issues)

Answer 18

The use of chance methods to control for effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions

Question 19

what is standarisation? (research issues)

Answer 19

Using the exact same formalized procedures and instructions for all Ps in a research study

Question 20

what is experimental design?

Answer 20

way in which Ps are organised in relation to the experimental conditions

Question 21

what are the three experimental designs?

Answer 21

Independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs

Question 22

what is independent group designs?

Answer 22

two separate groups experience two separate conditions.

Question 23

what is repeated measures design?

Answer 23

all participants experience both conditions

Question 24

what is matched pairs design?

Answer 24

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variables that may affect the dependent variable. Then one member is assigned to condition A and one to condition B

Question 25

independent groups limits

Answer 25

-participants who occupy the groups are not the same in terms of participant variables. If there is a large mean difference between the groups this could be due to the participant variables rather than the IV. They may act as a confounding variable, reducing validity.
-less economical, twice as many Ps to provide equivalent data to that collected in repeated measures design.
TO DEAL WITH THIS: random allocation of participants in groups

Question 26

repeated measure limits

Answer 26

repeating the tasks may be difficult if the order affects the result. Example, energy drink may still be in system when they then try the water.
TO DEAL WITH THIS: counterbalancing- half experience it in one order and half the other order
demand characteristics may also be a thing since they may have worked out the aims of the study while being subject to two conditions.

Question 27

matched pairs limits

Answer 27

participant variables are still hard to avoid as matched pairs are not exactly the same.
Matching may be time consuming and expensive, particularly if a pre test is required, so this is less economical than other designs.

Question 28

name four types of experiments

Answer 28

lab experiments, field experiments, natural experiments, quasi experiments

Question 29

what is a lab experiment?

Answer 29

takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the affects on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control on strenuous variables.

Question 30

lab experiment: strength and weakness

Answer 30

+high control of extraneous variables, ensuring DV is only affected by IV (high internal validity). Replication is also therefore easier due to high levels of control.
-low external validity, not generalisable. Ps are usually aware they are being tested in this environment, so we may see demand characteristics.

Question 31

what is a field experiment?

Answer 31

takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the affect on the DV.

Question 32

field experiments strengths and weaknesses

Answer 32

+high mundane realism, natural environment, so more valid an authentic behavior. High external validity
-loss of control of CVS and EVS.
-important ethical issues, if Ps are unaware they are being studies they cannot give consent, invasion of privacy.

Question 33

what are natural experiments?

Answer 33

the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher, something else causes the IV to vary. The researcher records the effect on the DV they have decided. Example: before and after natural disaster./

Question 34

natural experiments strengths and weaknesses

Answer 34

+Opportunities for research that otherwise may not be able to be taken due to practical and ethical issues.
+high external validity because they involve the study of the real world issues and problems as they happen, such as affects of natural disasters on stress levels.
-rare occurrence, and this may also limit the scope to generalizing the findings.

Question 35

what are quasi experiments?

Answer 35

the IV is already an existing experience no one has manipulated, such as age or gender.

Question 36

quasi experiments strengths and weaknesses

Answer 36

+often carries out under controlled conditions so therefore share strengths of lab experiences e.g. replication.
-cannot randomly allocate Ps to conditions so therefore there may be confounding variables.

Question 37

what is a population?

Answer 37

group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest, from which as smaller sample is drawn

Question 38

what is random sampling?

Answer 38

all members of the population have an equal chance to be picked.
first complete a list of all the members of the target population, then all the names on the list are assigned a number. The actual sample is selected through lottery form

Question 39

what is systematic sampling?

Answer 39

when every nth number of a target population is selected. sampling frame is ordered and then the researcher picks the sample through, for example, every third person.

Question 40

what is a stratified sample?

Answer 40

when the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups. example, 70% man U fans and 30% are Man City fans, 7 Man U fans will be selected while 2 Man City fans will be. Each of these would be randomly selected by their larger group- e.g. Man City fans choose the Man City participant.

Question 41

what is an opportunity sample?

Answer 41

anyone who happens to willingly be available

Question 42

what is a volunteer sample

Answer 42

the participants of the sample select their selves, for example through seeing an advert a researcher put up.

Question 43

Random sample evaluation:

Answer 43

+potentially unbiased. CVs or EVS may be distributed equally between the groups, enhancing internal validity.
-difficult and time consuming. Complete list may be hard to obtain

Question 44

systematic sample evaluation

Answer 44

+once system is selected, the researcher has now got no influence over who is chosen .
-time consuming

Question 45

stratified sample evaluation

Answer 45

+produces a representative sample as it is designed to accurately represent the composition of the population. Means generalization may be possible
-identified strata cannot reflect all ways that people are different, so rep of the target population is not possible

Question 46

opportunity sample evaluation

Answer 46

+less costly as list is not needed.
-cannot be generalized, as it is drawn to a specific area.
-researcher has complete control over selection so researcher bias is present

Question 47

volunteer sampling evaluation

Answer 47

+less time consuming as the sample comes to them.
-volunteer bias may be a problem; asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile of person, e.g. one who want to please the researcher.

Question 48

name four ethical issues

Answer 48

informed consent, deception, protection from harm, privacy and confidentiality

Question 49

what are ethical issues?

Answer 49

arise when a conflict exists between rights of Ps and research goals

Question 50

what is informed consent as an ethical issue?

Answer 50

making Ps aware of the aim of the research, procedures and their rights- including right to withdraw- and what their data will be used for. Ps should make a judgement whether they want to take part without being coerced or obliged.
This may be meaningless for the study as the P may know aims of study and behavior may not be natural

Question 51

what is deception as an ethical issue?

Answer 51

deliberately misleading or withholding information from the participant about the investigation. It can be justified in situations if it does not cause undue stress.

Question 52

what is protection from harm as an ethical issue?

Answer 52

Ps should not be placed in anymore risk as they would in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm. An important feature of this, for example, is Ps being told they can withdraw whenever they want.

Question 53

what is privacy and as an ethical issue?

Answer 53

Ps have the right to control information about themselves. Confidentially should be protected

Question 54

BPS code of conduct (ways of dealing with ethical issues)

Answer 54

the British psychological society has a code of ethics which includes a set of ethical guidelines
It instructs psychologists in the UK about what behavior is and is not acceptable . The code is built around the four principles of: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.

Question 55

dealing with informed consent (ways of dealing with ethical issues)

Answer 55

Ps should be given a consent form that included all relevant information needed. A parental signature is needed for under 16s.

Question 56

dealing with deception and protection from harm (ways of dealing with ethical issues)

Answer 56

at the end of the study, the Ps should be given a full debrief at the end of the study and be made aware of the true aims of the investigation.
right to withhold data will be explained while researchers explain what there data is being used for.
Reassurance that behavior was typical or normal to the Ps if they are worried

Question 57

dealing with confidentiality

Answer 57

if personal data is held, it must be protected. Other times the Ps data will not be recorded- anonymity. Example ‘HM’.
Ps will also be constantly reminded that their data will be protected an not shared.

Question 58

what is a pilot study?

Answer 58

small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check if procedures, measures etc work and for the researcher to see in they need to make and changes

Question 59

what is a single blind study?

Answer 59

study where the researcher is aware but the Ps are not, as any info that might create expectations is therefore not known. Example, researcher is aware of who has the placebo pill and who does not, but Ps are not

Question 60

what is a double blind study?

Answer 60

researcher and participants are both not aware of any info that might create expectations, example researchers influence of participant behavior.

Question 61

control group?

Answer 61

purpose is comparison to the experimental group

Question 62

naturalistic observation

Answer 62

watching and recording behavior in the setting it would normally occur.

Question 63

controlled observation

Answer 63

watching and recording behavior in a structured environment ie one where variables are managed, such as a lab.

Question 64

covert observation

Answer 64

Ps behavior is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent. For this to be ethical it can be in a public setting as the behavior is happening anyway

Question 65

overt observations

Answer 65

Ps behavior is watched and recorded with their consent

Question 66

participant observation

Answer 66

researcher becomes a member of the whos behavior they are watching and recording

Question 67

non participant observation

Answer 67

researcher remains outside the group they are watching and recording

Question 68

Observations overall- evaluation

Answer 68

+give special insight into behavior
-observer bias

Question 69

Naturalistic and controlled evaluation

Answer 69

+Nat- have high external validity, generalisable
-Nat- difficult to replicate
+C replication becomes easier as confounding variables are not a factor
-Low external validity

Question 70

covert and overt observations evaluation

Answer 70

+Cov- demand characteristics are reduced so internal validity increases
-Cov-Ethical issues, even when in public
+O-ethically better
-O demand characteristics, low internal validity

Question 71

participant and non participant observations

Answer 71

+Par-increased insight into lives of people, maybe meaning external validity can be increased
-Par-Danger that the researcher may become to close to the Ps and loose objectivity, as opinions now have influence
+Non- allow researcher to maintain an objective, less danger of social lifestyle
-Non-may loose valuable insight to the people they are studying that could be gained if they were involved

Question 72

what is inter observer reliability?

Answer 72

to make observations more objective and less bias, more than one researcher should be involved in the investigation. Data from both observers should be collected and compared to check for consistency
-might do a piolet study before hand and analyze those results then see thier differences in interpretations before doing the main one

Question 73

ways of recording data- unstructured observation

Answer 73

the researcher writes down everything they see.
rich in detail
may be important in small scale observations with few Ps

Question 74

ways of recording data- structured observation

Answer 74

if there is too much going on in an observation it is necessary to simplify the target behaviors that are needed.

Question 75

explain behavioral categories (observational design)

Answer 75

Target behavior or event is broken down into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation) for example the target behavior affection may be broken down into hugging, kissing.

Question 76

What are sampling methods (observational design)

Answer 76

unstructured observations can be impossible once the behaviors become complex, so structured observations must use systematic ways of sampling their observations. These ways are: event sampling and time sampling

Question 77

what is event sampling?

Answer 77

counting number of times a particular behavior (event) occurs in a target individual or group. For example, event sampling of confidence in a lesson would mean counting the number of times a student puts their hand up

Question 78

What is time sampling?

Answer 78

recording the behavior within a pre-established time frame. For example, in a football match we are only interested in one player so we note the players behavior every 30 seconds

Question 79

correlations- strengths

Answer 79

+quick and economical to carry out, there is no need for controlled environments and no manipulation of variables is required, and less time consuming as data from others can me collected
-correlation does not mean causation. third variable problems

Question 80

what is a self report technique?

Answer 80

any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions and behaviors and experiences related to the topic

Question 81

explain a questionnaire as a self report technique

Answer 81

a set of written questions used to assess a persons thoughts and/or experiences.
It may be used as part of an experiment to assess the dependent variable, for example views on legislation for a drug

Question 82

two styles of questions for questionnaires:

Answer 82

open and closed

Question 83

what is an open question?

Answer 83

questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in anyway they wish. Tend to produce qualitative data, but these wide range of responses may be difficult to analyse

Question 84

what is a closed question?

Answer 84

offers a fixed number of responses determined by a question setter. for example rating of 1 through 10. This provides quantitative. Easy to analyse but may lack depth

Question 85

three types of interviews:

Answer 85

structured(predetermined questions), unstructured (no set questions, works alot like a conversation. Interviewee is encouraged to expand answers) and semi structured (list of questions but follow up questions are also allowed

Question 86

Questionnaires strengths

Answer 86

+can be produced without researcher being present
+cost effective
+can be distributed quickly, meaning data is produced quickly
+quick to analyse or deep in detail depending on open or closed questions

Question 87

questionnaires limits:

Answer 87

-responses may not be truthful. May put themselves in a positive light. - social desirability bias.

Question 88

structured interviews evaluation

Answer 88

+straight forward to replicated due to their format.
-limited data richment due to interviewers not being able to expand or divert from topics

Question 89

unstructured interviews evaluation

Answer 89

+View of better insight into interviewee
-may lead to risk of interviewer bias.
-Drawing data may be tricky as there may therefore be a lot of irrelevant information recorded.
-social desirability may also occur

Question 90

issues that should be considered when designing an interview:

Answer 90

-standardized interview schedule to reduce the contaminating effect of interviewer bias
-ethical issues, how their personal issues are confidential

Question 91

issues that should be considered when designing questionnaires

Answer 91

emotive language or leading questions, over use of jargon (technical terms not everyone will know) or double barrel questions and double negatives

Question 92

what is qualitative data?

Answer 92

data that is expressed in words and is non numerical, for example feelings expressed by Ps.

Question 93

what is quantitative data

Answer 93

data that is expressed numerically and can be counted, for example number of words spoken by a person in a minute

Question 94

what is primary data?

Answer 94

information obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is often gathered in an experiment, self report or observation

Question 95

what is secondary data?

Answer 95

information that has already been collected by someone else and predates the current research project. in psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics.

Question 96

qualitative and quantitative data evaluation:

Answer 96

QUALITATIVE +richer detail, much broader in scope and allows Ps to go deeper into thoughts and feelings.
+higher external validity due to the researcher therefore getting a better insight into Ps.
-Difficult to analyse, patterns an comparisons are tricky to identify
-as a consequence, this may lead to subjective analysis which can lead to biases
QUANTITATIVE: the opposite of the above

Question 97

primary data evaluation

Answer 97

+authentic data
-requires time and effort for the researcher, for example planning a experiment takes time and resources when compared to secondary data that can be acquired and analysed in a matter of mins

Question 98

secondary data evaluation

Answer 98

+inexpensive and easy to get, requires minimal effort.
-information might be, for example, untrustworthy due to it being out dated or incomplete, or it might not match the researchers wants or objectives. This challenges its validity

Question 99

what is a normal distribution?

Answer 99

symmetrical spreads of frequency data that forms a bell shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest point.

Question 100

what is a skewed distribution?

Answer 100

a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end

Question 101

positive skew

Answer 101

type of frequency distribution where long tail is on the right side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left

Question 102

negative skew

Answer 102

type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the left side and distribution is concentrated on the right

Question 103

what is a peer review ?

Answer 103

the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research for publication is of high quality

Question 104

whats a meta analysis

Answer 104

a form of research that uses secondary data. Number of studies are identified that have the same aims and hypothesis’. It can give overall statistical measures of difference or relationship between variables of a number of studies

Question 105

main aims of peer review

Answer 105

-allocate research funding (decide whether it deserves funding)
-to validate quality and relevance of research
-to suggest amendments and improvements

Question 106

evaluation of peer review

Answer 106

+peer doing review remain anonymous throughout this process as this is more likely to produce an honest appraisal.
-however this could be sued to criticize rival researchers
-Publication bias- more ‘headline grabbing’ or lean towards more positivity.

Question 107

what is reliability?

Answer 107

refers to how consistent a measuring device is, includes psychological tests or observations which asses behavior.

Question 108

ways of assessing reliability:

Answer 108

test-retest, inter observer reliability

Question 109

what is test- re test (assessing reliability)

Answer 109

a method of assessing reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person on two different occasions. Shows to what extent the test produces the same results- consistent
-have to make sure there is a gap between both tests so recall is not a reason for good correlation

Question 110

what is inter-observer reliability (assessing reliability)

Answer 110

the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of behavior. this is one between correlating the twos observations. Rule is that if the total number of agreements/total number of observant is >+.80 then it has high inter observer reliability. There is also sub categories of: inter rater reliability (content analysis) etc.

Question 111

How can you improve the reliability of a questionnaire?

Answer 111

-test-retest method.
-comparing two sets of data should produce a correlation that exceeds +.80.
-questionnaire with low re test reliability should have questions deselected or rewritten.
-example swap open questions with closed questions, or confusing ones with straight forward ones

Question 112

How can you improve the reliability of interviews

Answer 112

-use the same interviewer each time.
-If this is not possible, make sure all interviewers are trained so they do not ask leading or confusing questions.
-More easily avoidable if interviews are structured

Question 113

How can you improve the reliability of observations

Answer 113

-Making sure behavioral categories have been properly operationalised, and that they are measurable
-If they are not operationalised, then the observers will have to perceive them in their own interpretation, leading to inconsistency.
-If reliability is low, observers need more training in using categories.

Question 114

How can you improve the reliability of experiments

Answer 114

-procedures must be the same every time.
-standardized procedures

Question 115

What is validity?

Answer 115

the extent to which an observed effect is genuine. Does it measure what it was supposed to measure? (internal) Can be generalized beyond the research setting in which is was found? (external)

Question 116

What is ecological validity?

Answer 116

Type of external validity- extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings and situations

Question 117

what is temporal validity?

Answer 117

extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other historical times and eras, form of external validity

Question 118

what is face validity? (ways of assessing validity)

Answer 118

for of validity in which a measure is examined to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure. Example, does an anxiety test look like it measures anxiety

Question 119

what is concurrent validity? (ways of assessing validity)

Answer 119

the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure. Example, IQ test matched similar results to Stanford Binet test. Close agreement between two tests would mean high concurrent validity- indicated when correlation exceeds +.80

Question 120

Improving validity of experiments

Answer 120

-control group can help assess whether changes to Dv were due to IV.
-standardized procedures to minimize participant reactivity and investigator effects on the validity of outcome
-Single blind or double biln activity, reducing investigator affects or/and demand characteristics

Question 121

Improving validity of questionnaires

Answer 121

-lie scale to assess consistency or responses and control affects of social desirability.
-Ensuring all Ps that data will be kept anonymous

Question 122

Improving validity of observations

Answer 122

-ensuing behavioral categories are specific
-covert observations can reduce ecological validity even further, as the P does not know they are being observed and it can be in a natural environment

Question 123

Improving validity- qualitative research

Answer 123

-Depth of detail that reflects Ps reality better can ensure it has high external validity.
-monitor interpretative validity of their conclusions- extent to which researchers interpretation matches Ps.
-Triangulation- use of a number of different sources as evidence, example data compiled through interviews with friends, family personal diaries, observations etc

Question 124

what is statistical testing?

Answer 124

used in psychology to determine whether a significant difference or correlation exists- (consequently, whether the null hypothesis should be rejected or retained)

Question 125

what is the null hypothesis?

Answer 125

The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables being studied. (H0)

Question 126

The alternative hypothesis is..

Answer 126

The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two variables being studied. It is alternative to the null hypothesis, and is trying to prove it wrong. (H1)

Question 127

The statistical test determines which hypothesis is true to rejects or accepts the null hypothesis

Answer 127

-

Question 128

what is probability?

Answer 128

measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 indicates statistical certainty.

Question 129

what is significance

Answer 129

statistical term that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. A significant result means the researcher can reject the null hypothesis.

Question 130

significance level is.. (definition)

Answer 130

the point at which the researcher can claim to have discovered a large enough difference or correlation within the data to claim an effect has been founding, meaning they can reject the null and accpet the alt.

Question 131

level of significance in psychology (number)

Answer 131

0.05 (5%) or written p≤0.05

Question 132

what does the p ≤ 0.05 mean?

Answer 132

probability that the observed effect occurred when there was no effect in the population is equal to or less than 5%. So even when a researcher claims to find a significant difference or correlation there is still up to 5% chance that this isn’t true for the target population from which the sample was drawn. Psychologists cannot be certain, so they have settled on a conventional level or probability that results may have been affected by chance.

Question 133

calculated value

Answer 133

the result number of a calculated value

Question 134

what is the critical value

Answer 134

to check for statistical significance, the calculate value must be compared to the critical value. Critical value is a number that tells us whether or not we can reject a null hypothesis- cut off point.

Question 135

the rule of R

Answer 135

statistical tests with the letter R are those where the calculated value must be equal to or MORE than the critical value. Other tests the calculated value must be less than or equal to the critical value.

Question 136

One tailed and two tailed tests (how the researcher knows what critical value to use)

Answer 136

one tailed test is hypothesis is directional and two tailed if it was non directional. (doubled for tt tests)

Question 137

probability levels double for..(how the researcher knows what critical value to use)

Answer 137

two tailed tests as they are a more conservative prediction.

Question 138

Number of Ps in the study (how the researcher knows what critical value to use)

Answer 138

-N value on the table. for some tests degrees of freedom are calculated instead

Question 139

level if significance (how the researcher knows what critical value to use)

Answer 139

0.05 is standard

Question 140

More stringent levels of significance

Answer 140

for example 0.01, might be used in studies such as drug trials that could not, for practical reasons, be repeated in the future. They will sometimes check the more stringent P if the critical value and calculated value have a large difference, as the lower the p value, the more statistically significant the result is.

Question 141

type 1 error

Answer 141

the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (false positive)

Question 142

type 2 error

Answer 142

the failure to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative)

Question 143

we are more likely to make a T1 error if the…

Answer 143

significance level is too lenient (too high) e.g. 0.1 or 10% rather than 5%

Question 144

we are more likely to make a T2 error if the…

Answer 144

significance level is too stringent (too low) e.g. 0.01 or 1% rather than 5%. Psychologies prefer the 5% as it balances the chances of making a T1 or T2 error.

Question 145

paradigm meaning (features of science)

Answer 145

a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

Question 146

paradigm shift meaning (features of science)

Answer 146

the result of a scientific revolution where there is a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline, occurs when scientists start to disagree with the paradigm.Example, against Einsteins theory of relativity.

Question 147

theory construction (features of science)

Answer 147

process of developing an explanation for the causes of behavior by systematically gathering evidence and then organizing it into a coherent account (theory)

Question 148

hypothesis testing (features of science)

Answer 148

a key feature of a theory is that it should produce statements (hypothesis) which can then be tested, only in this way can a theory be falsified.

Question 149

what is falsifiability? (features of science)

Answer 149

the principle that a theory is not scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proven false.

Question 150

replicability meaning (features of science)

Answer 150

the extent to which scientific procedures findings can be replicated by other researchers. Important role for determining validity of a finding. It is important scientists report their investigations with as much precision as possible.

Question 151

objectivity and empirical method (features of science)

Answer 151

scientists must keep objectivity in an experiment- all sources of personal bias are minimized so not to influence research process. This is a basis of an empirical method- scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation or speaking.

Question 152

three factors needed to decide a statistical test:

Answer 152

1)whether a researcher is looking for difference or correlation
2)in case of difference- what experimental design is being used
3)The level of measurement

Question 153

decision 1 (choosing a statistical test)

Answer 153

difference or correlation? Look at hypothesis- if the word association is used it is a correlation.

Question 154

decision 2 (choosing a statistical test)

Answer 154

experimental design? Only if it is a test of difference.
Related: matched pairs and repeated measures.
Unrelated: independent groups

Question 155

decision 3 (choosing a statistical test)

Answer 155

level of measurement.
nominal, ordinal and interval

Question 156

nominal data

Answer 156

categories, example ‘yes’ or ‘no’ categories. discrete data as one item can in one category.

Question 157

ordinal data

Answer 157

Ordered in some way, example 1 to 10 scale.
-does not have equal intervals between each unit
-lack precision as it is based on subjective opinion rather than objective measures. Idea of what 4 on the scale means may be subjective. Due to this they convert scores to ranks and use that in the statistical testing instead.

Question 158

interval data

Answer 158

scales that use equal precisely defined size.
-accepted units of measurements such as stop watch, scales.
-used in parametric tests, as it is the most precise form of data in psychology.

Question 159

Unrelated t test

Answer 159

unrelated design (test of difference), interval data

Question 160

Mann- Whitney

Answer 160

unrelated design (test of difference), ordinal data

Question 161

Chi-squared

Answer 161

appears twice in the table, one under unrelated design (test of difference), and one under test of association or correlation. Both use nominal data.

Question 162

Related t test

Answer 162

related design (test of difference), interval data

Question 163

Pearson’s r

Answer 163

test of association or correlation, interval data

Question 164

Wilcoxon

Answer 164

in the middle of the table. Related design (test of difference), ordinal data

Question 165

Spearmans rho

Answer 165

Test of association or correlation, ordinal data

Question 166

Sign test

Answer 166

related design (test of difference), nominal data

Question 167

order of statistical test table- letters

Answer 167

C S C
M W S
U R P

Question 168

order on table of data types:

Answer 168

nominal, ordinal, interval

Question 169

order on table of types of tests

Answer 169

Unrelated, related, (test of difference) I test of association