Approaches

Question 1

Biological- nomothetic or idiographic

Answer 1

nomothetic- universal laws as humans share physiologies

Question 2

Behaviorist- nomothetic or idiographic?

Answer 2

nomothetic- laws as explains behavior as a result to a stimulus with a response that’s applied to everyone

Question 3

social learning theory- nomothetic or idiographic?

Answer 3

nomothetic- vivacious reinforcement. however this approach is not as scientific as others due to it not having backed up case studies

Question 4

cognitive- nomothetic or idiographic?

Answer 4

nomothetic and idiographic- case studies focus on the individual such as KF study but includes general laws of cognitive processing

Question 5

psychodynamic- nomothetic or idiographic?

Answer 5

nomothetic and idiographic- innate drives apply to everyone but early unique child hood experiences in the psychosexual stage apply to individuals

Question 6

humanistic approach- nomothetic or idiographic?

Answer 6

idiographic- subjective to the human experiences

Question 7

exam question example-

Explain how the researcher might develop the above investigation through taking
a nomothetic approach. (Total 6 marks)

Answer 7

AO1
To develop the above investigation, using a nomothetic approach, the researcher would need to
test a larger sample of offenders, in order to establish a general law of behaviour.
By taking a nomothetic approach the research is likely to use one of the following methods of
investigation: experiment, correlational research or even psychometric testing.
AO2
In this investigation, the researcher might provide all of the offenders within the chosen prison
with a questionnaire to assess early their childhood experiences and types of crime (e.g. violent
crimes). The researcher could then carry out a correlational analysis to see if there is a
relationship between sad childhood events and violent crime. If the researcher finds a correlation
(either positive or negative) he would be able to generate a law of offending behaviour which he/she should generalize to the whole population

Question 8

explain wundts intentions and investigation

Answer 8

opened first ever lab dedicated entirely to psychology in Germany. His aim was to try an analyse the nature of human consciousness . His pioneering method became known as introspection . One of his main objectives was to try and develop theories about mental processes such as language and perception. Got friends to report images, sounds and sensations. Structuralism: same order and same structure of stimuli.

Question 9

whats introspection?

Answer 9

the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

Question 10

Wundt and introspection evaluation

Answer 10

+scientific at the time, well controlled environment, no extraneous variables. Carefully standardized procedures.
-unscientific today, self reporting methods, subjective data.

Question 11

timeline of psychological approaches:

Answer 11

-17th-19th century, psychology is a branch of philosophy
-1879 Wundt
- 1900s psychodynamic approach and psychoanalysis therapy
-1913 behaviourist approach by watson and skinner
-1950s humanistic approach (free will and self determination)
-1950s cognitive approach
-1960s SLT Bandura, bridge between behaviorism and cognitive
-1980s biological approach
-21st century cognitive neuroscience.

Question 12

what is the behaviorist approach?

Answer 12

A way of explaining behavior in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning. Behaviorists believe all behavior is learned, and identify two important stages of learning: classical and operant conditioning

Question 13

what is classical conditioning (pavlov dog research)

Answer 13

learning through association. This occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together- An unconditioned stimulus, such as the food, paired with a neutral stimulus such as a bell. The neutral stimulus provides the same response as the unconditioned stimulus meaning it now becomes a conditioned stimulus creating a conditioned response.

Question 14

what is operant conditioning (skinner)

Answer 14

form or learning in which behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences (could be good or bad) This includes: positive reinforcement- such as receiving a rewards, negative reinforcement- such as the avoidance of something unpleasant, like avoiding a phobic stimulus, to create a positive experience (relaxation). or finally punishment, a negative consequence of behavior.
-Skinners rats e.g. positive with food pellets from a level and punishment from electric shocks

Question 15

at is reinforcement

Answer 15

consequence of a behavior that increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated, can be + or -

Question 16

The behaviorist approach-strengths

Answer 16

+well controlled research in labs that reduce possibility of extraneous variables being the reason for behavior. For example, Skinner was clearly able to demonstrate how reinforcement influenced animals behavior. This suggests behaviorist experiments have scientific credibility.
+Real world application: operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions such as prisons, and for phobias. Increases value of the approach because it has wide spread application

Question 17

The behaviorist approach- weaknesses

Answer 17

-over simplified to reducing it to components. Mental processes are more essential
-Ignores free will possibility, as skinner says it is all to do with our past experiences, this is an extreme position and ignores influence of conscious decision making.

Question 18

what is the social learning theory?

Answer 18

a way of explaining behavior that includes both direct (classical + operant conditioning) and indirect reinforcement, combing learning theory with role of cognitive factors. For indirect learning to take place, it is by vicarious reinforcement.

Question 19

what is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 19

reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behavior, key factor in imitation- copying a behavior of others which occurs when the behavior is seen to be rewarded

Question 20

explain the 4 mediational processes:

Answer 20

mediational processes are cognitive factors that influences learning and intervenes the condition and the response. These four process include:
-attention (extent to which we notice certain behaviors),
-retention (how well the behavior is remembered)
-motor reproduction (ability of the observer to perform the behavior)
-motivation (the will to perform the behavior which is often determined by whether the behavior was rewarded or punished.
Unlike traditional behaviorism, learning and performance do not need to occur together. Observed behaviors may be learned but stored and performed at a later time

Question 21

what is identification?

Answer 21

a desire to be associated a particular group of people or person because they have certain desirable characteristics. We are more likely to imitate these people. The person we identify with are called role models, and the imitation of them is called modelling

Question 22

what is modelling?

Answer 22

imitating the behavior of a role model. From the role models perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a behavior that may be imitated by an observer

Question 23

explain Banduras research

Answer 23

A: recorded behavior of young children- aggressive adult behavior towards bobo doll, later on they were aggressive towards toys than non aggressive adults children.
B: children showed a video of adult being aggressive, with response of either praise, punishment or no response. Results showed praise one were most aggressive, then no response, then punishment

Question 24

SLT strengths

Answer 24

+recognizes cognitive factors importance in learning. neither O or C conditioning can provide an adequate account of learning on its own, suggests SLT provides more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognizing role of mediational processes.
+Real world application in cultural differences in behavior, and also social media. This has been useful in situations e.g. how children come to understand their gender role. Increases value of the approach
+Bobo study

Question 25

SLT- weaknesses

Answer 25

-criticized for making too little reference to biological factors, research has shown imitation may be due to mirror neurons in the brain. Suggests biological influences were under emphasized.
-many of the studies it was based on were lab studies where demand characteristics may be something the Ps respond to.

Question 26

what is the biological approach?

Answer 26

perspective that emphasizes the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function.

Question 27

Neurochemical basis for behavior (biological approach)

Answer 27

much of our thought and chemical processes relies on chemical transmission of the brain, occurring using transmitters. Imbalance of them have been determined as possible causes for disorders.

Question 28

genetic basis of behavior (biological approach)

Answer 28

-psychological characteristics have a genetic basis. This is investigated using twin studies, where monozygotic twins (100%n DNA share) are predicted to be concordant but dizygotic twins (50% DNA share) would not be. In an assumed constant environment

Question 29

Many biologists would also accept behavior can be determined by nature as.. (biological approach)

Answer 29

twins who have the same genotypes (set of genes) they both possess different phenotypes (characteristics determined by genes and environment)

Question 30

evolution and behavior

Answer 30

Charles darwin- natural selection: genetically determined behavior that gives an individual an advantage over competition will be passed down through generations

Question 31

biological approach strengths

Answer 31

+real world application: increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders, for example antidepressants increasing serotonin transmission. This has been associated with reducing the symptoms
+scientific methods: To investigate it makes use of FMRI and EEGs (scanning techniques), meaning it is accurate to measure them in ways that are not entirely open to bias. This means the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data.

Question 32

biological approach weaknesses

Answer 32

-antidepressants do not work for everyone. Study compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness. ‘mainly modest’ results. Biological approach may not account for everything.
-determinism- sees human behavior as internal and genetic that we have no control over. Phenotype. Can criminals excuse their behavior for this gene? Too simplistic therefore, and ignores environmental effects

Question 33

what is the psycho dynamic approach?

Answer 33

describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behavior and experience.

Question 34

what is the role of the unconscious?

Answer 34

-the unconscious is the part of our mind that we are unaware of but drives our behavior. The unconscious also contains any threatening or disturbing memories we repressed that can be accessed through dreams or slips of the tongue. We also have the pre conscious- contains thoughts and memories

Question 35

structure of our personality

Answer 35

Id, Ego, Superego

Question 36

what is the Id

Answer 36

entirely unconscious, id is made up of selfish and aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification

Question 37

what is the Ego

Answer 37

the reality check that balances the demands of the super ego and ego. It manages this through deploying defense mechanisms

Question 38

what is the super ego

Answer 38

moralistic part of our personality which represents our ideal self. It is formed at the end of the phallic stage.

Question 39

what are psychosexual stages?

Answer 39

five developmental stages that all children pass through. at each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development

Question 40

1st psychosexual stage

Answer 40

ORAL (0-1y)- focus on mouth, mothers breast can be the object of desire.
-consequence of unresolved conflict: smoking, biting nails

Question 41

2nd psychosexual stage

Answer 41

ANAL (1-3y) focus of pleasure is the anus. Child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.
-consequence of unresolved conflict: retentive: perfectionist
expulsive: messy

Question 42

3rd psychosexual stage:

Answer 42

PHALLIC (3-6y)- focus of pleasure is genital area
-consequence of unresolved conflict: narcissistic, reckless

Question 43

4th psychosexual stage:

Answer 43

latency: earlier conflicts repressed

Question 44

5th psychosexual stage:

Answer 44

sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
-consequence of unresolved conflict: difficults forming heterosexual relationships

Question 45

what are defense mechanisms

Answer 45

unconscious strategies the ego uses to conflict between Id and super ego. Help us not be overwhelmed by traumas However they often involve a distortion of reality and can become unhealthy if they are used as a long term solution

Question 46

psychodynamic approach strengths

Answer 46

+real world evaluation: psychotherapy. Freud introduced psychoanalysis which was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically. Example, dream analysis. It claims to have helped people brought their thoughts into their conscious. It is now the forefront for many modern day treatments such as counselling. Shows value of it for creating a new treatment.
+has been used to explain human behavior, such as personality development, psychological disorders, moral development and gender identity. It is also significant for connecting childhood experiences with current behavior. This suggests over all that it has a positive impact on psychology

Question 47

psychodynamic approach weaknesses

Answer 47

-it is classed harmful for people who have serious mental disorders such as schizophrenia. Disillusion thinking means they cannot articulate their thoughts in the way required by psychoanalysis. This suggests the the therapy may not reply to all disorders.
-untestable. does not meet the scientific criteria for falsification. Not open to empirical testing. Unconscious cannot be reached. And his studies are based on single researches such as little hans, meaning it is not generalisable. This suggests that his theory is not a real science rather than a fact.

Question 48

what is the cognitive approach

Answer 48

focused on how our internal mental processes affect behavior, such as memory and thinking. They are private, therefore psychologists make inferences to their conclusions.

Question 49

the role of the schema

Answer 49

the scheme is packages of ideas and information developed through experience, a mental framework of beliefs. For example, schema for a chair: something with legs you sit on. Babies are born with much more simple motor schema, and as we get older the scheme becomes more sophisticated. It is useful as it acts as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
Scheme can sometimes distort information, leading to perceptual errors.

Question 50

Theoretical and computer models for cognitive psychology

Answer 50

cog psychologists use both theoretical and computer models to help them understand internal mental processes. Theoretical are abstract and computer are physical.
-example of theoretical model is information processing approach- suggests information flows through system in sequence of stages (input, storage, retrieval) Similar way to how computers work, this has enabled us to develop AI.

Question 51

outline the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 51

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
This has gone back a long time ago in psychology, e.g. Broca identifying that damage to an area of the frontal lobe could impair speech production.
Now brain scans such as FMRI have enabled to observe impacts on thinking- episodic and semantic memory study managed to show how LTM may be located at opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex. Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing basis of mental disorders, such as link between para hippocampus and OCD. Brain fingerprinting- new computer generated models designed to ‘read’ the brain. this could be use in EWT to see if witnesses are lying

Question 52

cognitive approach strengths

Answer 52

+High controlled methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work. Example lab studies. In addition, emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled two fields to come together to enhance the scientific basis of a study. This means it has a credible scientific basis
+real world application: has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. E.g. contraction to AI field and robots. These can revolutionize how we live in the future. They have also been used to treat depression and also improve reliability of EWT. Support value of the cognitive approach

Question 53

Cognitive approach weaknesses:

Answer 53

-As is relies on inferences, it can occasionally suffer from being too abstract and theoretical. Studies are also carried out using fake stimuli, meaning it has low external validity.
-Based on machine reductionism. Ignores influence on human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this can alter our ability to process emotion. Anxiety on EWT example. This suggests the validity of the approach is weakened.

Question 54

what is the humanistic approach?

Answer 54

an approach understanding behavior that emphasizes the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self determination.

Question 55

free will in humanistic psychology

Answer 55

the notion that humans can make their own choices and their behavior/ thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external forces. Person centered approach

Question 56

Maslows hierarchy of needs

Answer 56

a five levels hierarchical sequence in which basic physiological needs such as hunger must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as self esteem and self actualization) can be achieved

Question 57

what are the levels of Maslows hierarchy of needs in order from top to bottom

Answer 57

-self actualization
-self esteem (e.g. do your job better than someone else)
-love and belongingness (e.g. family)
-safety and security (e.g. house)
-physiological needs (e.g. food and water)

Question 58

what is self actualization?

Answer 58

the desire to grow psychologically and fufill ones potential- becoming what you are capable of. Upper level of Maslows hierarchy of needs. All four lower levels must be met before they can work towards the ‘growth need’.

Question 59

the self congruence, and conditions of worth.

Answer 59

Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved a person must be equivalent or congruent with their ideal self. Self actualization will not be possible if the gap is too big. In order to reduce this gap he introduced client centered therapy (counselling). Low self esteem can be caused by early lack of unconditional love, such as ‘i will only love you if’. So the therapy supplies them with this unconditional regard they didn’t receive.

Question 60

evaluation of the hierarchy of needs

Answer 60

-needing to satisfy lower needs before reaching self actualization is not always the case, so in some aspects it has been falsified. This is evident in areas of poverty, where they may not have shelter, but still receive love and belonging which goes against his HON structure.
+has made a major contribution to teaching, rather than reducing behavior to a response in an environment, Maslow adopts a holistic approach to education. Creates a supportive environment as HON explains children must have achieved their physiological needs to learn well. Example increasing self esteem in children.

Question 61

humanistic approach strengths

Answer 61

+holistic, rejects attempts to break it up into smaller components compared to other ones that reduce it to smaller components. This enables us to understand the person as a whole, and means the approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behavior within its real world contexts
+optimistic. Promoting a positive human image into the world of psychology. Example, Freud saw humans as prisoners of their past who have suffered despair. This suggests it offers a refreshing and optimistic approach

Question 62

humanistic approach weaknesses

Answer 62

-reductionism can be more scientific, as it easily reduces behavior down to IV and DVS. There are few concepts that can be broken down with this, and it is tricky to measure single variables. Short on empirical evidence to support its claims
-culturally bias: many of the ideologies associated with this such as individual freedom and person growth may only apply to individualist cultures like the US. Collectivist countries do not emphasize independence. Approach might not be as ideal, meaning it cannot apply universally.

Question 63

comparing approaches (1) views on development

Answer 63

-psychodynamic (psychosexual stages, saw little development as child enters teen years-genital stage),
-cognitive (schema that is present at a young age are develop in complexity as children get older),
-biological (genetically determined behavior)
-and humanistic (self is ongoing throughout life but child-parent relationships is important with unconditional positive regard) all see child development as a factor.
-behaviorist approach do not, but instead see learning as continuous- occurring at any age

Question 64

comparing approaches (2) nature vs nurture

Answer 64

nature (biological factors) nurture (environment and experiences).
-behaviorists think babies are blank slates and the rest is characterized by experiences and reinforcements, or imitation (SLT)
-biological think it is genetic blueprints that we inherit (genotypes) though the way it is expressed can be influenced by the environment (phenotypes)
-psychodynamic- both biological drives and relationship with parents.
-humanistic- friends, family and wider society on concept of self
-cog: psychologists would recognize that many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate, they are consistently refined through experience.

Question 65

comparing approaches (3) reductionism

Answer 65

reductionism (breaking down can explain and holism (many different factors)
-behaviorism- reductionist as it breaks up complex behavior into stimulus for easy testing in labs
-biological approach reductionist as it explains behavior as a result of neurons and genes
-psychodynamic- both as it reduces it to sexual drives and biological instincts but personality is a dynamic interaction between three parts which can be holistic.
-cog- machine reductionism is a critique of this
-SLT- handful of key processes such as imitation, but they also include cog factors such as mediate learning and how these interact with external influences
-humanistic: holistic, understands aspects of the whole individual

Question 66

comparing approaches (4) determinism

Answer 66

proposes that all behavior has an internal or external cause and it thus predictable- goes against freewill
-Behaviorist approach sees all behavior as determined by the environment that we cannot control.
-Biological approach advocates genetic determinism as our behavior is mostly directed by innate influences.
-Psychodynamic advocates psychic determinism with the idea unconscious forces drive our behavior

Question 67

comparing approaches (4) determinism

Answer 67

proposes that all behavior has an internal or external cause and it thus predictable- goes against freewill
-Behaviorist approach sees all behavior as determined by the environment that we cannot control.
-Biological approach advocates genetic determinism as our behavior is mostly directed by innate influences.
-Psychodynamic advocates psychic determinism with the idea unconscious forces drive our behavior
THESE ABOVE ARE ALL HARD DETERMINISM
-cog: we are choosers to an extent but these choices can only operate under out limited experiences.
-SLT- reciprocal determinism- as well as being influenced by our environment, we also extert some influence on it through the behaviors we choose to perform.
ABOVE ARE SOFT DETERMINISM
-Humanistic psychology- human being have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own development