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National Counselor Exam > Research and Program Evaluation > Flashcards

Research and Program Evaluation Flashcards

1
Q

Positivism

A

An objective truth exists and can only be understood if directly observable. Truth must be measurable

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2
Q

Post-positivism

A

Truth can only be approximated bc of inherent errors present when measuring reality

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3
Q

Constructivisim

A

There are multiple realities or perspectives for any given phenomenon

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4
Q

Critical/ideological paradigm

A

Researchers taking a proactive role and confronting the social structure and conditions facing oppressed or underprivileged groups

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5
Q

Nuremberg Code

A

Stemmed from Nazi Medical War Crimbes

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6
Q

Milgram Obedience study

A

Shocks

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7
Q

Belmont Report

A

Informed consent, right to withdraw, guidelines for use of deception. Stemmed from Tuskegee syphilis study

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8
Q

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A

any institution receiving federal funding must go through IRB to conduct research with humans

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9
Q

Willowbrook Study

A

School for children with mental disabilities, parents who wanted to enroll signed a form to allow their children to be injected with hepatitis. Parents never told they could decline injections.

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10
Q

Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study

A

Healthy and unhealthy patients injected with cancer cells . participants never gave informed consent and weren’t told they were being injected w/ cancer

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11
Q

HIPAA

A

privacy rights of participants

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12
Q

Research hypothesis (2 types)

A

testable, concise statement involving the expected relationship between 2 or more variables.

  • Nondirectional: Eg: There is a significant relationship btwn amount of sleep and career satisfaction
  • Directional: There is a significant positive relationship between . . .
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13
Q

Null hypothesis

A

Statement that there is no relationship

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14
Q

Alternative hypothesis

A

Developed in order to be eliminated and addresses the question “what else could be causing the results?”

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15
Q

Significance level

A

Threshold for rejecting the null hypothesis, with values associated with alpha (typically .001, .01, .05)

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16
Q

Statistical significance

A

Cutoff point (critical value)

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17
Q

P value

A

likelihood of obtaining a result at least as extreme as the one observed assuming the null hypothesis is true

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18
Q

Type I Error

A

(alpha) Occurs when a decision is made to reject a null hypothesis when in fact that null hypothesis is true

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19
Q

Type II Error

A

(Beta) Occurs when a decision is made to retain the null hypothesis that should have been rejected bc it’s actually false

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20
Q

Power

A

Likelihood of detecting a significant relationship between variables when one is really there

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21
Q

Probability sampling

A

Sampling a known population

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22
Q

Non probability sampling

A

More common in counseling research. Involves accessing samples of convenience

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23
Q

Simple random sampling (probability sampling)

A

Every member of population has equal chance of being selected

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24
Q

Systematic sampling (probability sampling)

A

Every nth element is chosen

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25
Q

Stratified random sampling (probability sampling)

A

Population divided into subgroups based on important characteristics (gender, race, etc) and counselor draws randomly from subgroups

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26
Q

Cluster sampling (probability sampling)

A

Counselor identifies existing subgroups and not individual participants.

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27
Q

Multi-stage sampling (probability sampling)

A

2 stage (randomly select 60 schools then 10 classes from each school) 3 stage (select 200 school districts, 20 schools, 10 classes) , etc.

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28
Q

Convenience sampling (nonprob sampling)

A

Most common method. Counselor selects an easily accessible population that most likely doesn’t represent the pop of interest

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29
Q

Purposeful sampling (nonprob sampling)

A

Counselor selects sample from a population based on who will be most informative about a topic of interest. Participants selected bc they represent needed characteristics

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30
Q

Quota sampling (nonprob sampling)

A

Counselor draws needed number of participants with the needed characteristic (gender, race) from convenience sample

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31
Q

Random selection

A

Select participants from a population so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

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32
Q

Random assignment

A

Randomly assigning participants to different groups, such as treatment or control group

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33
Q

Internal validity

A

Changes in the DV are due to the effects of the IVs

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34
Q

History (internal validity)

A

Extraneous incidents occur during research. Within or outside the study

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35
Q

Selection (internal validity)

A

Group differences exist before the intervention due to lack of random assignment

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36
Q

Statistical regression (internal validity)

A

Scores of participants who were selected because of their extreme score on a dependent variable (eg: extremely depressed, low achievement) are affected Those with extremely high or low scores will regress toward the mean

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37
Q

Testing (internal validity)

A

Test itself has an impact on individuals, especially when pretests are invovled. Practice effects (memory effects)

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38
Q

Instrumentation (internal validity)

A

Changes in the instrument affect results (computerized, paper and pencil, etc)

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39
Q

Attrition (internal validity)

A

Participants drop out of a research study

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40
Q

Maturation (internal validity)

A

Changes in a participant over time affect the DV

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41
Q

Diffusion of treatment (internal validity)

A

Effects of an intervention are felt by those in another group

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42
Q

Experimenter effects (internal validity)

A

Bias of the investigator influences participant responses. Halo effect (counselors subjective, usually positive perceptions of participant are genearlized to other traits) , Hawthorne effect (presence of investigator affects participant responses)

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43
Q

Subject effects (internal validity)

A

Participants change their behaviors or attitudes based on their understanding of their role as participants. Participants will pick up cues (demand characteristics) from the researcher, or research setting, that motivate them

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44
Q

External validity (2 types)

A

Ability to generalize the results of a study to a larger group

  • Population external validity: involves the population to which one can generalize
  • Ecological external validity: involves the conditions or settings to which one can generalize
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45
Q

Novelty effect (external validity)

A

New treatment produces positive results just because it is new to participants

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46
Q

Experimenter effect (external validity)

A

halo and hawthorne

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47
Q

History by treatment effect (external validity)

A

experiment is conducted in a particular time period replete with contextual factors that can’t be duplicated easily in another setting

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48
Q

Measurement of the dependent variable (external validity)

A

Effectiveness of a program may depend on the type of measurement used in the study

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49
Q

Time of measurement by treatment effect (external validity)

A

Timing of the administration of a posttest may influence results

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50
Q

Quantitative Research

A

Captures relationship between 2 things that can be measured numerically

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51
Q

Qualitative Research

A

Attempts to answer questions about HOW a behavior or phenomenon occurs

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52
Q

Mixed Method Research (2 types)

A

Blends or mixes qualities from quant and qual research

  • Concurrent: quant and qual are collected at same time (aka triangulation)
  • Sequential design: either quant or qual data is collected first. Exploratory: qual first. Explanatory: quan first
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53
Q

Single-Subject research designs (SSRD)

A

Measure how either receiving treatment or not receiving treatment affects a single subject or group of subjects

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54
Q

Descriptive Research

A

Used to describe a phenomenon and does not involve intervention (treatment). What is and how often something occurs. Usually done as precursor or in conjunction with other research methods

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55
Q

Longitudinal Research

A

Data collection for a particular group over time

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56
Q

Cross-sectional research

A

Examines different groups or cohorts at a particular point in time, with differences in experience being compared

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57
Q

Survey Research

A

Method of collecting quant and qual data

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58
Q

Action research

A

Research that is typically carried out by professional counselors in an effort to improve their own practice/efficiency

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59
Q

Pilot study

A

Smaller than full scale study and is designed to assess feasibility of expanding a study to a much larger scale

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60
Q

Nonexperimental Research designs

A

Quant. Exploratory and descriptive. No intervention involved, no variables or conditions manipulated. Goal is to observe and outline properties of variable.

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61
Q

Experimental research designs

A

Involves intervention (counselor manipulates conditions and variables). Assess cause and effect relationships

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62
Q

Descriptive design (nonexperimental research design)

A

Thoroughly describing a variable at one time (simple descriptive) or over time (longitudinal design).

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63
Q

Longitudinal design (trend, cohort, panel)

A

Trend=assess general population over time, with new people each time data collected. Cohort=assess the same population over time, panel = same individuals over time

64
Q

Comparative design

A

Investigates group differences for a particular variable.

65
Q

Correlational research design

A

Describes relationship between two variables

66
Q

Ex post facto research design

A

(AKA causal-comparative design) involves examining how an IV affects a DV by assessing whether one or more pre-existing conditions possibly caused differences in groups

67
Q

Within-subject design

A

assess changes that occur within the participants in a group as they experience some intervention

68
Q

Between-group design

A

Exploring the effects of a treatment or intervention between 2 groups or among more than 2 groups

69
Q

Split-pot design

A

ASsessing a general intervention on the whole plot and assessing other treatments to subplots within the whole plot

70
Q

Pre-experimental designs

A

Do not use random assignment. Thus not considered true experimental designs

71
Q

One-group posttest-only design (Pre-experimental designs)

A

Group receives intervention and change is measured

72
Q

One-group pretest-posttest design (Pre-experimental designs)

A

Group evaluated before and after intervention

73
Q

Nonequivalent groups posttest-only design (Pre-experimental designs)

A

No attempt made to begin the study with equivalent groups of participants.

74
Q

True experimental designs (5 types)

A

(AKA randomized experimental designs) are gold standard for experimental designs: at least 2 groups for comparison and random assignment

75
Q

Randomized pretest-posttest control group design (true experimental)

A

participants assigned to 2 groups (1 is control) and both are measured before and after intervention

76
Q

Randomized pretest-posttest comparison group design (true experimental)

A

participants assigned to at least 2 groups, and each group receives a distinct intervention.

77
Q

Randomized posttest-only control group designs (true experimental)

A

random assignment of participants to treatment or control, and then administer an intervention to one group, then measure outcome

78
Q

Randomized posttest-only comparison group design (true experimental)

A

with at least 2 groups for comparison and no control group

79
Q

Solomon four-group design (true experimental)

A

comprehensive true experimental design. using 4 randomly assigned groups, presence of pretest and intervention can be assessed more rigorously

80
Q

Quasi-experimental designs

A

Useful when it’s impossible/inappropriate to randomly assign participants to groups

81
Q

Time series design (quasi-exp)

A

Repeatedly measuring before/after intervention for one group or control group for comparison

82
Q

Single-Subject Research Designs (SSRDs)

A

Allow for repeated measures of a target behavior over time for an individual or select group of individuals

83
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Organize and summarize data - describe data

84
Q

Frequency distribution

A

Tabulation of the number of observations (or number of participants) per distinct response for a particular variable

85
Q

Frequency polygon

A

Line graph of the frequency distribution

86
Q

Histogram

A

Graph of connecting bars that shows the frequency of scores for a variable

87
Q

Bar graph

A

Looks similar to histogram but displays nominal data

88
Q

Central tendency

A

What is the typical score

89
Q

Mean

A

average

90
Q

Median

A

Middlemost score. Better to use if there are outliers

91
Q

Mode

A

Most frequently occuring score (bimodal, multimodal)

92
Q

Variability

A

How dispersed are scores from a measure of central tendency?

93
Q

Range

A

Range of data. can be affected by outliers.

94
Q

Interquartile range

A

eliminates top and bottom quartiles and provides range around median score

95
Q

Standard deviation

A

most frequently reported indicator of variability for interval or ratio data

96
Q

Variance

A

Standard deviation squared

97
Q

Skewness

A

Asymmetrical distribution with data points that don’t cluster symmetrically around a mean

98
Q

Kurtosis (3 types)

A

Meso (normal curve), letpo (tall and thin), platy (flat and wide)

99
Q

Inferential statistics

A

Used to try and describe results beyond what is garnered from the data alone

100
Q

Degrees of freedom

A

Number of scores, or categories of a variable that are “free to vary”. It’s a restrictor

101
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

Information about relationship between two variables. Is there a relationship? What direction? Is it strong?

102
Q

Spurious correlation

A

when a correlation overrepresents or underrepresents the actual relationship

103
Q

Regression studies (3 types)

A

Prediction studies are extensions of correlational studies and known as regression studies

  • Bivariate regression: how well scores from independent variable predict scores on dependent variable
  • Multiple regression: Involves more than one predictor variable
  • Logistic regression: dependent variable is dichotomous
104
Q

T-test (2 types)

A

Compares 2 means for one variable

  • Independent t test: involve comparing 2 independent groups on one dependent variable
  • Dependent t test: involve similar groups paired or matched in some meaningful way, or the same group tested twice
105
Q

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

A

Involves having at least one independent variable in a study with 3+ groups or levels

106
Q

Post hoc analysis

A

Allows one to examine every possible pairing of groups for a particular independent variable after one has concluded there are main effects (significant difference among 2 or more groups making up a single independent variable)

107
Q

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

A

Test includes independent variable as a covariate, or a variable that needs to be statistically adjusted and controlled in order to look at the relationship of the other independent variables and the DV

108
Q

Multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA)

A

Similar to anova but involves multiple DVs

109
Q

Multiple analysis of covariance (MANCOVA)

A

Similar to ancova but involves multiple DVs

110
Q

Nonparametric Stats

A

Used when professional counselors are only able to make a few assumptions about the distribution of scores in the underlying population

111
Q

Chi-square test

A

Used with 2 or more categorical or nominal variables, where each variable contains at least two categoires.

112
Q

Factor analysis

A

The purpose is to reduce a large number of variables to a smaller number of factors

113
Q

Meta analysis

A

allows researcher to combine and synthesize the results of numerous similar studies for a particular outcome or DVs

114
Q

Phenomenology

A

Used to discover meaning of participants’ lived experiences with goal of understanding person

115
Q

Grounded theory

A

Generate theory that is grounded in data from participants’ perspectives for a particular phenomenon

116
Q

Consensual qualitative research (CQR)

A

approach that combines elements of phenomenology and grounded theory

117
Q

Ethnography

A

Researcher describes and provides interpretations about the culture of a group or system. Observation

118
Q

Purposive sampling

A

Obtain information-rich cases that allow for maximum depth and detail regarding a certain phenomenon

119
Q

Saturation

A

Seek sample sizes that reach point of redundancy of information. Sample until no new data comes in.

120
Q

Convenience sampling

A

Sampling based on availability or accessibility. Least desirable method. Least trustworthy

121
Q

Maximum variation sampling

A

Sampling a diverse group and searching for core patterns and individual perspectives based on unique participant characteristics

122
Q

Homogenous sampling

A

Selecting participants for a specific subgroup with theoretically similar experiences

123
Q

Stratified purposeful sampling

A

Identify important variables pertaining to a research question and sampling subgroups that best isolate each variable

124
Q

Purposeful random sampling

A

identify a sample and randomly select participants from that sample

125
Q

Comprehensive sampling

A

Sampling all individuals within a system

126
Q

Typical case sampling

A

selecting the “average” participants or those who represent the typical experience for a phenomenon

127
Q

Intensity sampling

A

identify those with intense but not extreme experiences of a phenomenon

128
Q

Critical case sampling

A

Sampling those with intense and irregular experiences

129
Q

Extreme or deviant sampling

A

Looking for the bounds of difference, or those with the most positive and negative experiences

130
Q

Snowball, chain, or network sampling

A

A pool of participants is derived through obtaining recommendations from earlier participants

131
Q

Criterion sampling

A

develop criteria and selecting all cases that meet criteria

132
Q

Opportunistic or emergent sampling

A

Taking advantage of an unexpected opportunity and changing one’s research design to include a particular individual in one’s pool

133
Q

Theoretical sampling

A

as theory evolves, sampling those who best contribute information for one’s theory

134
Q

Confirming/disconfirming case sampling

A

Including cases that confirm and add depth to one’s evolving theory can also provide exceptions or potentially disconfirm elements of one’s theory

135
Q

Qualitative interviewing (3 types)

A
  • Unstructured: no predetermined question
  • Semi-Structured: preset interview protocol with flexibility to change/add/remove questions
  • Structured: standardized interview protocol and ensures same level of info is collected from each individual
136
Q

Participant observation

A

Counselors engaging in observations

137
Q

Unobstrusive methods

A

Collecting photos, videos, documents, archival data, artifacts

138
Q

Contact summary sheet

A

Single page snapshot of specific contact

139
Q

Document summary form

A

Attached primarily to unobstrusive data sources (like newspapers or artifacts)

140
Q

Data display

A

presents organized data in a table format or a figure containing interconnected nodes

141
Q

Inductive analysis

A

Involves searching for keywords and potential traditions that involves searching for keywords and potential themes from the data without significant preconceived notions of what theory or theories fit the data

142
Q

Trustworthiness

A

The validity or truthfulness of findings - why others should trust your data collection

143
Q

Credibility (trustworthiness)

A

Believability of your findings

144
Q

Transferability (trustworthiness)

A

degree to which data transfers to other contexts and participants

145
Q

Dependability (trustworthiness)

A

degree of consistency of results over time and across researchers

146
Q

Confirmability (trustworthiness)

A

reflects that interpretation of data is a genuine reflection of participants’ views

147
Q

Needs assessment (program evaluation)

A

Initial step to explore whether a program is needed for a particular group of individuals

148
Q

Process evaluation (program evaluation)

A

assessment of an ongoing program to ensure that program activities match plans

149
Q

Outcome evaluation(program evaluation)

A

Determination of program success by investigating how participants are performing with respect to themselves as well as others who are not involved in the program

150
Q

Efficiency analysis (program evaluation)

A

comparison of the costs of the program in relation to need, processes, and outcomes.

151
Q

Accountability

A

Process of providing feedback about a program to its stakeholders

152
Q

Stakeholders

A

Any individuals involved in or affected by the program

153
Q

Formative evaluations

A

Ongoing evaluation of a program throughout its implementation to ensure that it is being conducted as planned and acted upon as needed

154
Q

Summative evaluation

A

involves assessment of the entire program to determine the degree to which program goals and objectives have been met

155
Q

Steps in program evaluation

A
  1. Identify the program to be evaluated
  2. plan the evaluation
  3. conduct a needs assessment and provide recommendations
  4. determine what success is
  5. Select data sources
  6. Monitor and evaluate the program progress
  7. Determine the degree to which a program is successful
  8. analyze the program’s efficiency
  9. continue, revise, or stop program based on findings
156
Q

ABCD model

A

Audience, Behavior, Conditions, Description

National Counselor Exam (2 decks)

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