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A2 Biology UNIT 5 > Repsonding To The Environment > Flashcards

Repsonding To The Environment Flashcards

0
Q

Some neurones are myelinated. What does this mean?

A

They have a myelin sheath, which is an electrical insulator. It is made of a Schwann cell. Between these cells, there are tiny patches of bare membrane called the nodes of Ranvier. Sodium channels are concentrated here. Depolarisation takes place here.

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1
Q

3 factors that affect the speed of conduction of action potentials

A

Myelination

Axon diameter

Temperature

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2
Q

How are impulses sent along a myelinated neurone

A

Myelin sheath made up of Schwann cell, between these cells are tiny patches of bare membrane called nodes of Ranvier. Sodium ion channels are concentrated here. Depolarisation only happens at nodes. The neurones cytoplasm conducts enough electrical charge to depolarise next node, so impulse jumps from node to node. Called saltatory conduction, very fast

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3
Q

How are impulses sent in a non-myelinated neurone

A

The impulse travels as a wave along the whole length of the axon membrane. It is slower than saltatory conduction

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4
Q

How does axon diameter affect the speed on conduction

A

Action potentials are conducted quicker along axons with bigger diameters as there is less resistance to the flow of ions than in the cytoplasm of a smaller axon. With less resistance, depolarisation reaches other parts of the neurone cell membrane quicker

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5
Q

How does temperature affect the speed on conduction

A

Speed of conduction increases as the temp increases as ions diffuse faster as they have more energy to move. The speed only increases up to around 40c, after this the proteins begin to denature and speed decreases

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6
Q

What is a synapse

A

A junction between a neurone and the next cell

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7
Q

The tiny gap between the cells at a synapse is called….

A

Synaptic cleft

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8
Q

Acetylcholine is a what? What does it do?

A

Neurotransmitter

It transmits the nerve impulse across a cholinergic synapse

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9
Q

What is a neuromuscular junction

A

A synapse between a motor neurone and a muscle cell

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10
Q

What do neuromuscular junctions use

A

Neurotransmitter acetylcholine which binds to cholinergic receptors called nicotinic cholinergic receptors. They work in the same way as the cholinergic synapse but…. The post synaptic membrane has lots of folds that form clefts. These clefts store the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine. The membrane also has more receptors. When motor neurone fires an action potential, always triggers a response in muscle cell, this isn’t always the case for a synapse between 2 neurones

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11
Q

Neurotransmitters are either ……….. or ………….

A

Excitatory or inhibitory

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12
Q

Excitatory neurotransmitters info

A

Depolarise the post synaptic membrane making it fire an action potential of threshold reached. Eg acetylcholine binds to cholinergic receptors to cause an action potential in post synaptic membrane

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13
Q

Inhibitory neurotransmitters info

A

Hyperpolarise the post synaptic membrane (make the potential difference more negative), preventing it from firing an action potential. Eg GABA, when it binds to its receptors it causes potassium ion channels to open on the post synaptic membrane, hyperpolarising the neurone

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14
Q

What happens if the stimulus is weak

A

Only a small amount of neurotransmitter will be released from neurone into synaptic cleft. This might not be enough to excite the post synaptic membrane to the threshold potential and stimulate an action potential

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15
Q

What is summation

A

Where the effect of neurotransmitter released from many neurones (or one neurone that’s stimulated a lot in a short period of time) is added together

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16
Q

What are the 2 types of summation

A

Spatial and temporal

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17
Q

What is spatial summation

A

Many neurones connect to 1 neurone. The small amount of neurotransmitter released from each of these neurones can be enough altogether to reach the threshold potential in the post synaptic neurone and trigger an action potential. OR If some neurones release an inhibitory neurotransmitter then the total effect of all the neurotransmitters might be no action potential

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18
Q

What is temporal summation

A

Where 2 or more nerve impulses arrive in quick succession from the same pre synaptic neurone. Makes an action potential more likely because more neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft

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19
Q

What is the function of summation at synapses

A

It means that synapses accurately process info

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20
Q

5 examples of how drugs can affect synaptic transmission

A

Some drugs are the same shape

Some block receptors

Some inhibit the enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters

Some stimulate the release of neurotransmitter

Some inhibit the release of neurotransmitter

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21
Q

How do drugs that are the same shape affect synaptic transmission

A

Same shape as neurotransmitters so they mimic their action at receptors. Means more receptors are activated.

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22
Q

How do drugs that block receptors affect synaptic transmission

A

They block receptors so they can’t be activated by neurotransmitters. Means fewer receptors can be activated

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23
Q

How do drugs that inhibit the enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters affect synaptic transmission

A

Inhibit the enzyme so there are more neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft to bind to receptors and they’re there for longer

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24
Q

How do drugs that stimulate the release of neurotransmitter affect synaptic transmission

A

Stimulate the release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neurone so more receptors are activated

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25
Q

How do drugs that inhibit the release of neurotransmitter affect synaptic transmission

A

Inhibit the release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neurone so fewer receptors are activated

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26
Q

What is a stimulus

A

Any change in the internal or external environment of an organism

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27
Q

Receptors detect….

A

Stimuli

They can be cells or proteins on cell surface membranes

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28
Q

Organisms increase their chance of survival by responding to changes in their….

A

Internal and external Environment

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29
Q

What are effectors

A

Cells that bring about a response to a stimulus, to produce an effect. Effectors include muscle cells and cells found in glands like the pancreas

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30
Q

How do receptors communicate with effectors

A

Via the nervous system, the hormonal system or both

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31
Q

The nervous system sends info as…..

A

Electrical impulses

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32
Q

The nervous system is made up of a ……….

A

Complex network of cells called neurones

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33
Q

What are the 3 main types of neurone

A

Sensory neurone

Relay neurone

Motor neurone

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34
Q

What do sensory neurones do

A

Transmit electrical impulses from receptors to the central nervous system

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35
Q

What do motor neurones do

A

Transmit electrical impulses from the CNS to effectors

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36
Q

What do relay neurones do

A

Transmit electrical impulses between the sensory and motor neurones

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37
Q

A stimulus is detected by…

A

Receptor cells and an electrical impulse is sent along a sensory neurone. When an electrical impulse reaches the end of a neurone, neurotransmitters take the info to next neurone, which sends an electrical impulse. CNS processes the info and decides what to do about it and sends impulses along motor neurones to an effector

38
Q

Define the central nervous system

A

Made up of the brain and the spinal cord

39
Q

Define the peripheral nervous system

A

Made up of the neurones that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. It has 2 different systems, the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems

40
Q

Define the somatic nervous system

A

Controls conscious activities like running

41
Q

Define autonomic nervous system

A

Controls unconscious activities like digestion. It has 2 divisions that have opposite effects on the body, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

42
Q

Define the sympathetic nervous system

A

Gets the body ready for action, it’s the ‘flight or fight’ system

43
Q

Define parasympathetic nervous system

A

Calms the body down. It’s the ‘rest and digest’ system

44
Q

When an electrical impulse reaches the end of a neurone, neurotransmitters are secreted directly onto cells, so the nervous system is…..

A

Localised

45
Q

Neurotransmitters are quickly removed once they have done their job, so the response is …….

A

Short lived

46
Q

Electrical impulses are really fast, so the response is…..

A

Rapid, allows animals to react quickly to stimuli

47
Q

Receptors info

A

They are Specific, they only detect 1 particular stimulus eg light, pressure. There are many different types of receptor that each detect a different type of stimulus. Some receptors are cells, some are proteins on cell surface membranes

48
Q

Pacinian corpuscles are….

A

Mechanoreceptors, they detect mechanical stimuli eg pressure and vibrations. Found in skin

49
Q

Photoreceptors convert ………. into an ………….

A

Light

Electrical impulse

50
Q

What happens during the refractory period

A

Ion channels recovering, can’t be opened. So period acts as a time delay between 1 action potential and the next. Makes sure action potentials don’t overlap but pass along as discrete (separate) impulses. Period also makes sure action potentials are unidirectional

51
Q

Action potentials have an all-or-nothing nature. Explain

A

Once threshold potential is reached, action potential will always fire with same change in voltage no matter how big the stimulus. If threshold isn’t reached, action potential won’t fire, this is the all-or-nothing nature of action potentials. A bigger stimulus won’t cause a bigger action potential but will cause them to fire more frequently

52
Q

What is a gland

A

A group of cells that are specialised to secrete a useful substance such as a hormone

53
Q

What are hormones

A

Chemical messengers. Many hormones are proteins or peptides, some are steroids

54
Q

What can glands be stimulated by

A

A change in conc of a specific substance or by electrical impulses

55
Q

What are chemical mediators

A

Chemicals that are released from certain mammalian cells and have an effect on cells in their immediate vicinity. They are typically released by infected or injured cells and cause small arteries and arterioles to dilate. Leads to a rise in temp and swelling of the affected area (called inflammatory response)

56
Q

What are 2 examples of chemical mediators

A

Histamine and prostaglandins

57
Q

Histamine info

A

Chemical mediator, stored in certain white blood cells, released following injury or in response to an allergen eg pollen. Causes dilation of small arteries and arterioles and increased permeability of capillaries allowing more immune system cells to move out of blood to infected or injured area

58
Q

Prostaglandins info

A

Chemical mediator, found in cell membranes, case dilation of small arteries and arterioles. Their release following injury increases permeability of capillaries. Also affect blood pressure and neurotransmitters. They affect pain sensation

59
Q

Flowering plants increase their chance of survival by responding to changes in their …….
Explain

A

Environment

They sense the direction of light and grow towards it to maximise light absorption for photosynthesis. They sense gravity so their roots and shoots grow in the right direction. Climbing plants have a sense of touch, so they can find things to climb and reach the sunlight

60
Q

What is tropism

A

The response of a plant to a directional stimulus (a stimulus coming from a particular direction)

61
Q

What is a positive tropism

A

Growth towards the stimulus

62
Q

What is a negative tropism

A

Growth away from the stimulus

63
Q

What is phototropism

A

Growth of a plant in response to light

64
Q

What is geotropism

A

Growth of a plant in response to gravity

65
Q

Plants respond to stimuli using….

A

Growth factors

66
Q

What are growth factors

A

Chemicals that speed up or slow down plant growth

67
Q

Where are growth factors produced

A

In the growing regions of the plant (eg shoot tips, leaves) and they move to where they’re needed in the other parts of the plant

68
Q

Give 2 examples of a growth factor and what they do

A

Gibberellin- Stimulates flowering and seed germination

Auxin- stimulates the growth of shoots by cell elongation (where the cell walls become loose and stretchy so the cells get longer. The shoots grow towards the light for photosynthesis. However, High conc of auxins inhibit growth in roots

69
Q

Example of type of auxin and what it does

A

IAA, produced in tips of shoots in flowering plants. It is moved around the plant, via diffusion and active transport over short distances and via the phloem over long distances, to control tropisms. Results in different parts of the plants having different amounts of IAA. The uneven distribution means uneven growth of plant. Plant grows towards light for photosynthesis

70
Q

Control of heart rate involves which 2 things

A

Brain

Autonomic nervous system

71
Q

What is a reflex

A

Where the body responds to a stimulus without making a conscious decision to respond

72
Q

What is the importance of a reflex

A

It helps organisms to avoid damage to the body as the response is so rapid

73
Q

What is a reflex arc

A

The pathway of neurones linking receptors to effectors in a reflex

74
Q

The pathway of neurones linking receptors to effectors is called…

A

A reflex arc

75
Q

A simple reflex arc involves 3 neurones. These are…

A

Sensory, relay, motor neurones

76
Q

Example of a simple reflex arc in hand withdrawal response to heat

A

Thermo receptors in skin detect heat stimulus

Sensory neurone carries impulses to relay neurone

Relay neurone connects to motor neurone

Motor neurone sends impulses to effector (biceps muscle)

Muscle contracts to stop hand being damaged

77
Q

What do simple responses do to simple/mobile organisms. Examples of responses

A

Simple responses keep simple/mobile organisms in a favourable environment

Eg taxes and kineses

78
Q

Taxes info

A

Organisms move towards or away from a directional stimulus

Eg woodlice show tactic response to light (photo taxis), they move away from light source. Helps them survive as keeps them concealed under stones during day and in damp conditions

79
Q

Kineses info

A

Organisms movement is affected by a non directional stimulus

Eg woodlice show a kinetic response to humidity. In high humidity they move slowly and turn more often so that they stay where they are. As air gets drier they move faster and turn less often so they move into a new area. Response helps woodlice move from drier air to more humid air and then stay there. This improves their survival chances as it reduces water loss and helps keep them concealed

80
Q

Skeletal muscle is made up of….

A

Long muscle fibres

81
Q

Muscles are stimulated to contract by…

A

Neurones

82
Q

Skeletal muscle info

A

Also called striated muscle, type of muscle used to move. Made up of large bundles of long cells called muscle fibres. The cell membrane of muscle fibre cells is called the sarcolemma. Bits of the sarcolemma fold inwards across the muscle fibre and stick into the sarcoplasm (a muscle cells cytoplasm). Folds are called transverse tubules and help to spread electrical impulses throughout the sarcoplasm so they reach all parts of muscle fibre. Network of internal membranes called sarcoplasmic reticulum runs through sarcoplasm. Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores and releases calcium ions that are needed for muscle contraction. Muscle fibres have a lot of mitochondria to provide the ATP needed for muscle contraction. They are multinucleate. Muscle fibres have lots of long cylindrical organelles called myofibrils, these are made of protein

83
Q

Thick myofilaments are made from which protein

A

Myosin

84
Q

Thin myofilaments are made of which protein

A

Actin

85
Q

Muscle contraction is triggered by what

A

An influx of calcium ions

86
Q

What are the 3 main ways that ATP is generated during muscle contraction

A

Aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration

ATP-phosphocreatine system

87
Q

Which 2 things provide energy for muscle contraction

A

ATP and phosphocreatine

88
Q

In a myelinated neurone, why does depolarisation only happen at the nodes of Ranvier

A

This is where the sodium ions can get through the membrane

89
Q

You can use an optical microscope and a slide of stained muscle tissue to find the diameter of one of the muscle fibres. Explain how

A

Measure field diameter using ruler

Estimate number of fibres to cover diameter

90
Q

How do chemical mediators reach the cells they affect

A

Diffuse directly to where they are needed

91
Q

How are synapses uni-directional

A

Acetylcholine is released from the presynaptic membrane

Diffusion from high to low conc

Receptors only on post synaptic membrane

92
Q

Name the process by which IAA moves from growing regions to other tissues

A

Diffusion

A2 Biology UNIT 5 (4 decks)

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