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Biomed2 > Reproductive > Flashcards

Reproductive Flashcards

1
Q

What 2 processes do sexual reproduction involve

A

Meiosis & fertilisation

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2
Q

What does reproductive meiosis produce

A

Haploid gametes, male sperm & female ova

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3
Q

What is a zygote

A

Cell produced after fertilisation containing 46 chromosomes, full genetic code

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4
Q

How many lobes are found in the mammary glands

A

Consists of 15-20 lobes, containing small grape like clusters of glands called alveoli which are separated by adipose tissue

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5
Q

How is milk ejected from the breasts

A

Contraction of myoepithelial cells that surround the alveoli which help propel milk into lactiferous ducts

The milk itself can be stored in lactiferous sinuses

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6
Q

What are the 3 tissue layers of the uterine wall

A
  1. Perimetrium - visceral peritoneum outer
  2. Myometrium - 3 smooth muscle layers
  3. Endometrium - highly vascular inner layer divided into the ‘stratum basalis’ which is permanent deep layer that regenarates the ‘stratum functionalis’ (sloughs off during menses)
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7
Q

What is the main ligament that keeps the uterus suspended

A

The ‘broad ligament’

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8
Q

What hormone helps to build up the endometrium vs maintain

A

Oestrogen helps build
Progesterone helps maintain

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9
Q

What are the functions of the placenta

A

The site of exchange of nutrients, oxygen & wastes between the mother & foetus, attached to the endometrium through diffusion of blood
It produces hormones that are needed to maintain pregnancy
Nutrient transfer is mediated by proteins called nutrient transporters

Provides a form of protective barrier to separate blood from the two placental systems

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10
Q

What are the two placental systems

A

Formed in 12th week of gestation, maternal placenta & foetal side
Preventing blood from transferring whilst still allowing mother breathing & eating for the foetus

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11
Q

What 2 main hormones does the placenta produce

A

Progesterone - maintains endometrial lining

Oestrogen - promotes growth of breast tissue & myometrium

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12
Q

What is the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

A

only produced during pregnancy by placenta (tests!) which ensures adequate nutrient transfer to foetus & is related to morning sickness

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13
Q

What is the hormone human placental lactogen (hPL)

A

Increases the amount of glucose & lipids in maternal blood

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14
Q

What is the hormone relaxins role in pregnancy

A

Targets ligaments & relaxes them in preparation for birth as well as growth in uterus
Produced by corpus luteum & placenta

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15
Q

What is the role of CRH in pregnancy

A

Produced by placenta
Triggers release of cortisol from adrenals which prevents rejection of foetus / placenta (immunosuppressant)

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16
Q

What are monozygotic twins

A

(30%)
Identical twins that originate from one fertilised ovum
Zygote splits into 2 embryos but share 1 placenta

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17
Q

What are dizygotic twins

A

(70%)
Non-identical twins, release of two ova & fertilisation of each. Implanted independently with 2 placentas

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18
Q

What are the main functions of the fallopian tubes

A

Provide a route for the ova to travel to the uterus & for sperm to travel to the ova

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19
Q

What are fimbriae

A

Finger-like projections that surround the ovary & sweep the ova into the fallopian tube
They are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium which function to help move the ova towards the uterus
A smooth muscle layer also performs peristalsis to assist ova movement

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20
Q

What hormones do ovaries secrete

A

Oestrogen & progesterone

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21
Q

What is the function of the ovarian ligament

A

Anchors the ovaries to the uterus, whilst the broad ligament also assists in maintaining the position of the ovaries

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22
Q

What does oogenesis refer to

A

The formation of female gametes (ova) in the ovaries
It begins in the foetus

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23
Q

What is a primary oocyte & how is it formed

A

An immature egg cell
Formed from germ cells during foetal development which stops at birth (approx 20thousand - 2million)

During female lifetime around 400 will mature & ovulate with rest degenerating

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24
Q

What is a germ cell

A

An embryonic cell capable of becoming a gamete

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25
Q

Why do primary oocytes have follicular cells

A

The primordial follicles are needed to help primary oocytes to grow & mature

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26
Q

What hormone does the anterior pituitary release to help maturation of primary oocytes

A

FSH stimulates maturation of the primordial follicles into a mature follicle

This follicular structure remains & becomes the corpus luteum

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27
Q

What hormone triggers ovulation

A

LH triggers the release of the mature ovum - secondary oocyte

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28
Q

How does the placenta connect from the mother to the baby

A

Maternal part extends from the endometrium whereas the foetus connects to the embryo through the umbilical cord

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29
Q

How is the corpus luteum formed

A

When LH causes the release of the secondary oocyte from the mature follicle, it leaves behind the follicular cells in the ovary which release progesterone & sustain the endometrium

30
Q

How long is an average menses cycle

A

24-35 days with 28 being average

31
Q

What are the four main phases of menses

A
  1. Menstrual (day 1-5) - FSH
  2. Pre-ovulatory (day 6-13) - Oestrogen
  3. Ovulation day 14 - LH
  4. Post-ovulatory phase (day 15-28) - progesterone
32
Q

What hormones control the ovaries

A

Pituitary hormones following the release of GnRH - FSH & LH

33
Q

What hormones control the uterus

A

Ovarian hormones - oestrogen & progesterone

34
Q

What prevents the corpus luteum to degenerate into corpus albicans during pregnancy

A

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) hormone maintains & stimulates the corpus luteum to carry on producing hormones & after a few a weeks the placenta takes over rold of producing hCG & progesterone to maintain the pregnancy

35
Q

What hormones occur during onset of female puberty

A

Occurs between 10-14 yrs
Onset of puberty is marked by pulses of LH & FSH, each triggered by a burst of GnRH
As puberty advances, the hormone pulses start to occur during the day as well as night, increasing over 3-4 yrs
Internal reproductive organcd reach maturity at the menarche

36
Q

What does menarche mean

A

A females first menses indicating puberty

37
Q

What is the menopause

A

The permanent cessation of menstruation for 12 consecutive months
Naturally occurs at 45-55yrs
due to ovarian aging whereby number of follicles become exhausted
Can be surgically induced following hysterectomy

Drop in oestrogen & progesterone affects negative feedback leading to high FSH & LH levels

38
Q

What are common signs & symptoms of menopause

A
  • hot flushes & increased sweating
  • vaginal dryness & atrophy of mucosal lining leads to painful intercourse
  • increase risk of UTIs due to urogenital atrophy
  • mood changes, irritability, anxiety
  • decreased libido & sleep disturbances
  • breast shrinkage, sparse pubic & axillary hair
  • osteoporosis (loss of oestrogen)
39
Q

What is the epididymis

A

Two structures which cover the testicles and is the area where sperm is stored & matured

40
Q

What duct does the sperm travel through from the epididymis
Which is cut during a vasectomy

A

The vas deferens ducts

41
Q

What are the spermatic cords

A

The vas deferens which supply the testicles with oxygenated blood as well as vein that drain the testes

42
Q

What are the seminal vesicles in males

A

Input key secretions into male ejaculate before entering the ejaculatory duct

43
Q

What key gas erects the penis

A

Parasympathetic nervous system produces nitric oxide which stimulates vasodilation

44
Q

Where do the testes develop during foetal growth

A

In the pelvic cavity near to the kidneys and then descend into the scrotum via the inguinal canals

45
Q

Where does spermatogenesis occur

A

Testes divide into 200-300 lobules and im each Contains the seminiferous tubules
Which is regulated by FSH

46
Q

Where is testosterone produced & secreted

A

Produced by GnRH in the hypothalamus triggers release of LH by pituitary which binds to ‘Leydig cells’ on the semniferous tubules of the testes

This produces a cascade effect converting LDL cholesterol to testosterone

47
Q

What is the acrosome of spermatozoa

A

A vesicle that contains lysozomal enzymes that help to penetrate into the egg

48
Q

What two glands produce seminal fluid

A

The seminal vesicles — (60% alkaline seminal fluid & some nutrients such as fructose to nourish sperm)

Prostate gland — milky fuild makes 30% semen which is nutrient rich for sperm, proteolytic enzymes, anticoagulants (to increase fluidity), what is PSA

49
Q

What is prostate specific antigen

A

Is an enzyme that determines the functionality of the prostate
Can be identified in blood tests

50
Q

Why is seminal fluid alkaline

A

To prevent sperm from urethral & vaginal acidity

51
Q

What are the cowper’s glands

A

Secrete high alkaline mucosal fluid that neutralises urinary acids in the urethra & lubricates penis prior to ejaculation

52
Q

What is hirsutism

A

Male pattern hair growth in females

53
Q

What is metorrhagia

A

Mid-cycle bleeding

54
Q

Menorrhagia

A

Very heavy menstrual bleeding

55
Q

Polymenorrhea

A

Short cycle, frequent periods

56
Q

Oligomenorrhea

A

Infrequent cycles

57
Q

Galactorrhea

A

Lactation without pregnancy

58
Q

Dyspareunia

A

Pain on intercourse

59
Q

What are the common causes of primary amenorrhea

A

Failure of menses to occur by expected onset
Mostly caused by congenital defects: failure of ovarian follicles to develop

60
Q

What are the common causes of secondary amenorrhea

A

Lack of menstruation for 3 months in previously menstrual women

Pituitary tumour, PCOS, hypothyroidism, stress, anorexia, excessive exercise (endorphins inhibit GnRH), uterine obstruction, medications

61
Q

PCOS vs polycystic ovaries

A

PCOS = endocrine metabolic condition with multifaceted symptoms

Polycstic ovaries = 12 or more follicles / increased ovarian volume

62
Q

What is the process of IVF

A

Artificial fertilisation of the ovum by sperm outside the body ‘in vitro’
Success rate around 30%

Drug ‘clomiphene’ causes oocytes to develop
Eggs retrieved from ovaries, examined & incubated with sperm on a petri dish to allow fertilisation to occur (or injected directly into egg)
Embryo is then transferred to the uterus with intent to establish a successful pregnancy

63
Q

What is the oestrogen boosting allopathic treatment for menopause

A

HRT
Used to relieve menopausal symptoms & reduce risk of osteoporosis but only delays menopause whilst increasing risk of breast & endometrial cancer, heart disease, stroke & DVT

64
Q

What is metformin

A

A form of allopathic med offered for PCOS
A harmful amino acid = homocysteine which increases risk of athersclerosis

65
Q

What is the pathophysiology of endocrine mediated PCOS

A

Dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis = imbalance of LH & FSH ratios
Higher LH promotes increased ovarian androgen formation (testosterone) which suppresses ovulation

66
Q

Why does insulin resistance increase risk of PCOS

A

Insulin suppresses Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG) which raises free circulating androgens (testosterone) thus suppressing ovulation

67
Q

What is acanthosis nigricans

A

A sign of insulin resistance
Tough, dry, thickened dark skin often around skin folds eg neck, elbows, knuckles etc

68
Q

What is clomiphene

A

An allopathic med that induces ovulation

69
Q

Mammography v thermography

A

Mammo = radiation & has to be a considerably large & usually calcified tumour to spot
V
Thermo = more blood vessels show change in physiological/temperate so easier to spot lump in breast

70
Q

What can be injected to help undescended testi drop

A

hCG acts like LH, increasing testosterone
This surgery usually occurs between 6-18 months of birth

71
Q

Pathophysiology of BPH

A

Enlargemnt of prostate can occur from an increase in 5-alpha-reductase
This enzyme converts testosterone to DHT which has twice the effect on the prostate

72
Q

What are 5-a-reductase inhibitors

A

Allopathic = finasteride
Alternative = zinc & saw palmetto herb

Biomed2 (9 decks)

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