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(SALMA) Physiology > Reproduction (SUGER) > Flashcards

Reproduction (SUGER) Flashcards

1
Q

what does hcg stand for?

A

human chorionic gonadotrophin

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2
Q

what does hcg do?

A

stimulates ovarian oestrogen/progesterone prod

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3
Q

what does oestrogen do? (2)

A
  • regulates progesterone levels

- prepares uterus/lactating breasts

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4
Q

what does progesterone do? (2)

A
  • builds up endometrium for support of placenta

- inhibits uterine contraction

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5
Q

what does prolactin do?

A

increases milk-producing cells

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6
Q

what does oxytocin do? (2)

A
  • caring reproductive behaviour

- causes uterine contractions during labour

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7
Q

what are prostaglandins?

A

tissue hormones that initiate labour

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8
Q

which hormone stimulates ovarian oestrogen production?

A

hcg

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9
Q

which hormone stimulates ovarian progesterone production?

A

hcg

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10
Q

which hormone regulates progesterone levels?

A

oestrogen

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11
Q

which hormone prepares the uterus and lactating breasts?

A

oestrogen

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12
Q

which hormone builds up the endometrium?

A

progesterone

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13
Q

which hormone inhibits uterine contraction?

A

progesterone

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14
Q

which hormone increases milk-prod cells?

A

prolactin

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15
Q

which hormone limits uterine activity?

A

relaxin

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16
Q

which hormone is involved in cervical ripening?

A

relaxin

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17
Q

which hormone causes contractions during labour and reproductive behaviours?

A

oxytocin

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18
Q

what is the name for the tissue hormones that initiate labour?

A

prostaglandins

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19
Q

the plasma concentration of which 2 hormones continuously increase during pregnancy?

A

oestrogen and progesterone

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20
Q

why does progesterone inhibit uterine contractility during pregnancy?

A

so that the foetus is not expelled prematurely

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21
Q

for the first 2m of pregnancy: what supplies almost ALL of the oestrogen and progesterone?

A

corpus luteum

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22
Q

if pregnancy had not occurred, in what time frame would the corpus luteum have been degraded?

A

2w

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23
Q

which hormone is used as a test for pregnancy

A

hcg

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24
Q

describe the neg feedback mechanism of hcg

A
  • hcg secreted from developing trophoblasts into maternal blood
  • stimulates maternal ovaries to continue to secrete oestrogen and progesterone via neg feedback on maternal gonadotrophin secretion
  • this prevents additional menstrual cycles
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25
Q

when does hcg secretion peak

A

60-80 days after last menstruation

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26
Q

what is prolactin prod by?

A

pituitary gland

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27
Q

when is relaxin high?

A

in early pregnancy

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28
Q

drugs used to induce labour may contain what?

A

oxytocin and prostaglandins

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29
Q

list 4 cardiovascular maternal adaptations

A
  • increased CO
  • reduced TPR thus reduced BP
  • increased uterine blood flow
  • increased plasma/RBC volume
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30
Q

list 2 respiratory maternal adaptations

A
  • increased insp vol

- increased breathing rate

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31
Q

how do veins change during pregnancy?

A

growing uterus - presses on IVC thus incr lower limb venous pressure - varicose veins

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32
Q

list 3 skin changes during pregnancy

A
  • linea nigra: dark line btwn umbilicus/pubic symphysis
  • stretch marks @ site of maximal growth
  • increased breast size, areola becomes larger/darkly pigmented, nipples become more erect
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33
Q

define parturition

A

the birth process; successful transition from intra- to extra-uterine life

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34
Q

what is cervical ripening

A
  • growth/remodelling of cerrvix prior to labour

- involves placental hormones (PGs, relaxin, oxytocin)

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35
Q

summarise labour initiation

A
  • stress –> CRH release –> ACTH release –> cortisol release –> OESTROGEN RELEASE
  • oestrogen release –> inhibits uterine progesterone release –> UTERINE CONTRACTIONS
  • prostaglandins (PFG2a) and relaxin (from ovaries) relax cervic walls –> DILATION
  • baby pushing onto cervix –> oxytocin release –> UTERINE CONTRACTIONS (positive feedback)
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36
Q

what is the main prostaglandin released during labour?

A

PGF2a

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37
Q

what are the 2 main stages of labour

A 
latent phase (onset - 3cm) 
active phase (3cm - full/10cm)
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38
Q

when does the placenta begin development

A

at blastocyst implantation

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39
Q

what are the 3 main placental functions

A
  1. metabolism
  2. transport
  3. endocrine
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40
Q

what is inside the umbilical cord?

A

2 umbilical arteries

1 umbilical vein

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41
Q

list the 4 “human chorionic ……” placental hormones

A
  • hc gonadotrophin - LH
  • hc somatomammotrophin - mammary development
  • hc thyrotropin - thyroxine
  • hc corticotrophin - cortisol
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42
Q

list 3 other placental hormones

A

progesterone, oestrogen, relaxin

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43
Q

at birth, how many primary oocytes are there in primordial follicles?

A

40k

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44
Q

what happens to oocytes at birth?

A

arrested in prophase of meiosis 1 until puberty

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45
Q

at puberty, what does the ant pituitary release?

A

FSH/LH

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46
Q

what is the difference between the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle?

A

follicular phase = first 14 days (follicle maturation)

luteal phase = last 14 days (corpus luteus formation)

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47
Q

what are the 6 steps of the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle? (when confident, pick a random number 1-6 and test)

A
  1. GnRH released from hypothalamus
  2. FSH released from ant pituitary (proliferation of granulose follicular cells)
  3. LH released from ant pituitary (proliferation of granulose cells in follicles)
  4. Oestrogen released from granulosa cells (stimulates endometrium growth)
  5. At low levels, oestrogen inhibits release of FSH/LH from ant pituitary
  6. Inhibin released from granulose cells (inhibits ant pituitary)
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48
Q

what is the order of hormones released during the follicular phase?

A

GnRH - FSH - LH - Oestrogen

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49
Q

what are the 2 steps of ovulation?

A
  1. oestrogen prod reaches threshold - no more neg feedback

2. LH surge causes weakening in follicle wall - mature ovum released

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50
Q

what are the 4 steps of the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle? (when confident pick a number btwn 1-4 n test)

A
  1. FSH/LH cause follicle to degrade into corpus luteum
  2. corpus luteum produces high amounts of progesterone/some oestrogen
  3. progesterone stimulates endometrium growth - ready for blastocyst
  4. corpus luteum suppresses FSH/LH prod from ant pit
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51
Q

what happens post luteal phase if implantation occurs?

A

embryo prod hcg hormone which preserves corpus luteum/endometrium

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52
Q

what happens post luteal phase if there is no more implantation?

A

low FSH/LH levels causes corpus luteum atrophy which stops progesterone production –> menstruation occurs

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53
Q

what are the 5 steps of fertilisation?

A
  1. capacitation - sperm prepares for fertilisation by destabilising membrane
  2. sperm binds to corona radiata –> reaches zona pellucida
  3. acrosome bursts –> digests through glycoprotein matrix
  4. cortical granules release –> hardening of zone pellucida –> no sperm entry
  5. sperm enters oocyte cytoplasm and fuses with ovum nucleus
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54
Q

what are the 6 steps of implantation?

A
  1. syngamy
  2. cleavage
  3. compaction
  4. cavitation and expansion
  5. hatching
  6. implantation
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55
Q

what happens during syngamy (and which step/day of implantation is this)?

A

step 1
day 1

  • chromosomes align in prep for mitosis 1
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56
Q

what happens during cleavage (and which step/day of implantation is this)?

A

step 2
day 2-3

  • mitotic division occurs
  • totipotent stem cells
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57
Q

what happens during compaction (and which step/day of implantation is this)?

A

step 3
day 4

  • cells flatten
  • tight gap junctions between cells
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58
Q

what happens during cavitation and expansion (and which step/day of implantation is this)?

A

step 4
day 5

  • blastocyst formation and increase in size
  • zona pellucida thins
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59
Q

what happens during hatching (and which step/day of implantation is this)?

A

step 5
day 6-8

  • blastocyst hatches from zona pellucida
  • necessary for implantation
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60
Q

describe primordial follicles

A

consists of 1 primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of cells called granulosa cells

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61
Q

what do granulosa cells secrete

A
  • oestrogen
  • small amts of progesterone jus before ovulation
  • peptide hormone inhibit
62
Q

what do primordial follicles develop into

A

primary follicle –> preantral follicle –> early antral follicle –> mature follicle

63
Q

discuss the selection process of follicles

A

beginning of menstrual cycle - 10-25 of preantral/early antral follicles begin to develop into larger antral follicles

1 week into the cycle, further selection process - only 1 of larger antral follicles, DOMINANT follicle continues to develop

dominant follicle selected on basis of cond of oocyte/oestrogen prod

non-dominant follicles degenerate

64
Q

what is a mature follicle aka

A

graafian follicle

65
Q

what is the corpus luteum a major source of

A

progesterone

66
Q

which cells in the testes have a similarity with granulosa cells

A

sertoli cells (control microns in which germ cell develops/matures)

67
Q

what is the epithelia lining the uterus called?

A

endometrium

68
Q

what is the myometrium

A

underlying uterine smooth muscle

69
Q

what impact does progesterone have on myometrial contractions?

A

inhibits

70
Q

progesterone only AFTER ovulation causes the mucus to become thick and sticky… what impact does this have?

A

forms a plug that prevents bacteria from entering the uterus from the vagina - protects uterus/embryo if fertilisation has occurred

71
Q

when must sperm be introduced for pregnancy?

A

5 days before ovulation - 1 day after

72
Q

how is egg transported?

A
  • at ovulation, the egg is extruded onto the ovary surface
  • fimbriae’s smooth muscles cause the fimbriae to pass over the ovary while the cilia beat in waves towards the interior of fallopian tube
  • these ciliary motions sweep the egg into the Fallopian tube as it emerges onto the ovarian surface
  • once inside the fallopian tube, the eggs moved by the fallopian-tube cilia, the cilia are slow and it takes around 4d for egg to be beaten into the uterus
73
Q

where does fertilisation occur

A

ampulla of Fallopian tube

74
Q

after gamete fusion, in how many hours does egg undergo meiosis 2?

A

4-7

75
Q

describe what happens during meiosis 2

A
  • zygote still in fallopian tube
  • 2nd polar body degenerates
  • 2 sets of 23c (egg + sperm) now known as pronuclei
  • pronuclei migrate to cell centre
  • DNA replication occurs in prep for 1st mitotic division
  • 46 chromosomes organise @ spindle equator
76
Q

after cleavage, each cell is totipotent; what does this mean

A

stem cells with capacity to developing into an entire individual (MZ twins occur at some point during cleavage)

77
Q

how many cells does a blastocyst have

A

more than 80

78
Q

what does a blastocyst consist of

A

outer layer of cells (trophoblast), inner cell mass and central fluid filled cavity

79
Q

when does implantation occur

A

day 21 of cycle (embryo reaches uterus day 5/6)

80
Q

what does the trophoblast diff into

A

cytotrophoblast

syncitiotrophoblast

81
Q

what are the 3 phases of embryo implantation

A
  • apposition
  • attachment
  • invasion
82
Q

what prevents antigenic rejection of embryo

A

secretion of interleukin 2

83
Q

when does the placenta begin to develop

A

at blastocyst implantation

84
Q

what does the placenta consist of

A

a combination of interlocking foetal and maternal tissues

85
Q

how does the maternal blood enter placental sinuses

A

via uterine artery

86
Q

unconjugated bilirubin vs conjugated: which crosses placenta easily

A

unconjugated

87
Q

what does SRY stand for

A

sex determining region on y chromosome

88
Q

what is MIF (mullein inhibitory factor) released by

A

Sertoli cells in testes

89
Q

wat causes MIF to be released

A

presence of SRY gene

90
Q

what does DHT (dihydrotestosterone) do?

A
  • development of external male genitalia

- also major role in development of body hair, muscle growth, deep voice etc

91
Q

which ducts form for females?

A

mullerian duct (paramesonephric)

92
Q

which ducts form for males?

A

wolffian duct (mesonephric)

93
Q

what is lionisation?

A

only 1 of a female’s X chromosomes is functional: non-functional X - condenses to form nuclear mass = Barr body

94
Q

where do m/f gonads derive embryologically from?

A

urogenital/gonadal ridge

95
Q

when do the testes begin to develop

A

week 7

96
Q

what is testosterone prod by

A

leydig cells

97
Q

what impact does testosterone have on wolffian duct

A

differentiates into epididymis, vas deferent, ejaculatory ducts and seminal vesicles

98
Q

what does the mullerian duct in females develop into

A

Fallopian tubes and uterus

99
Q

do the external genitalia develop from mullerian/wolffian ducts?

A

no

100
Q

what are germ cells

A

cells that develop into sperm/ova

101
Q

where do germ cells originate from

A

yolk sac of hind gut

102
Q

what is the 1st stage in gametogenesis

A

proliferation of primordial (undifferentiated) germ cells by mitosis

(46c chromosomes replicated, division into 2 daughter cells)

103
Q

in males, when does mitosis usually occur?

A

some during foetal life but mostly during puberty (to form primary spermatocytes)

104
Q

in females, when does mitosis usually occur?

A

during foetal life (to form primary oocytes)

105
Q

what is the 2nd stage in gametogenesis

A

meiosis

results in gametes receiving only 23c from a 46c germ cell

106
Q

what is crossing over

A

when 2 non-sister chromatids undergo an exchange of sites of breakage –> results in the recombination of genes on homologous chromosomes

107
Q

what does the 1st meiotic division result in

A

males: secondary spermatocytes
females: secondary oocyte (NOTE, the 2nd cell arising from 1st meiotic division = 1st polar body - no function)

108
Q

what is the timing of the 2nd meiotic division in males/females?

A

males: continuously after puberty –> spermatids –> mature sperm cells
females: AFTER FERTILISATION of sec oocyte by sperm –> zygote (+ 2nd polar body)

109
Q

give a brief overview of meiosis 1 and 2

A

meiosis 1: separates homologous chromosome pairs producing 2 haploid cells (4n - 2n)
- mitosis, but crossing over/independent assortment occurs

meiosis 2: separates duplicated sister chromatids prod 4 haploid cells (2n - n)
- daughter cells divide to form haploid cells

110
Q

where does meiosis occur in males

A

seminiferous tubules

111
Q

where does meiosis occur in females

A

ovaries

112
Q

how many ml of fluid is expelled during an orgasm (males) and what does this consist of

A

2-5ml

  • 60% seminal vesicle fluid
  • 30% prostatic
  • 10% sperm and trace of bulbourethral fluid
113
Q

what is a normal sperm count

A

50-120 million/mL

114
Q

what is semen

A

fluid and sperm cells

115
Q

what does sperm serve to do

A

digest path through cervical mucus

fertilise the egg

116
Q

how does prostate/seminal vesicle secretion aid sperm

A
  • buffers for sperm protection against vaginal secretions/residual urine in male urethra
  • chemicals that increase sperm motility (movement)
  • prostaglandins to stimulate female peristaltic contractions
117
Q

what is the mnemonic for the summary of path of sperm to outside

A

SREEVE(N)UP

118
Q

what does SREEVE(N) up stand for

A

summary of path of sperm to outside

  • Seminiferous tubules
  • Rete testis
  • Efferent ducts
  • Epididymis
  • Vas Deferens
  • Ejaculatory duct
  • NOTHING
  • Urethra
  • Penile Urethra
119
Q

what does the blood testis barrier ensure

A

proper cond for germ cell development and differentiation within tubules (Sertoli cells form BTB)

120
Q

what is another word for undifferentiated germ cells

A

spermatogonia

121
Q

where are spermatozoa produced

A

testis

122
Q

when spermatogonia divide mitotically @ puberty: they prod 2 types of daughter cells. what are they?

A

type a & b

123
Q

what is the difference between type a & type b daughter cells

A

type a: remain oUTSIDE blood-testis barrier and prod more daughter cells until death

type b: diff into PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTES which move through BTB (which then go onto become secondary spermatocytes –> spermatids –> spermatozoa)

124
Q

what happens during meiosis 2 in males:

A

secondary spermatocytes –> 4 spermatids

125
Q

what happens during spermiogenesis

A

spermatids diff into spermatazoa by:

  • growing tail (flagellum)
  • discarding cytoplasm to become lighter
126
Q

where does spermatogenesis occur

A

seminiferous tubules bordering Sertoli cells

127
Q

what happens when sperm formation completes

A

cytoplasm of Sertoli cells around sperm retracts and sperm released into lumen to be bathed in luminal fluid

128
Q

what is most of the tail of the sperm made of

A

flagellum: group of contractile filaments –> whiplike movement capable of propelling sperm at velocity

129
Q

what is the tip of the nucleus of the sperm covered by

A

acrosome: protein-filled vesicle containing enzymes to penetrate egg

130
Q

at birth, how many eggs do the ovaries contain

A

2-4 million

131
Q

what is another word for primitive germ cells

A

oogonia

132
Q

when do all of the oogonia differentiate into primary oocytes

A

during foetal life

133
Q

when does meiosis 1 occur in females

A

in-utero before week 12

134
Q

where is meiosis arrested until puberty for females

A

metaphase 1

135
Q

in meiosis 1, what happens to 1 of the 2 daughter cells?

A

secondary oocyte - retains virtually all of cytoplasm (other 1 is 1st polar body, so small and non-functional)

136
Q

when does meiosis 2 occur in females

A

when secondary oocyte develops into ovum

137
Q

when is meiosis 2 arrested until

A

fertilisation

138
Q

what is the diff btwn m&f primary oocytes/spermatocytes?

A

each primary oocyte can only prod 1 ovum

each primary spermatocyte can prod 4 sperms

139
Q

what is the diff btwn m&f maturation

A

male: both occurs in testis
females: 1 in ovaries and 1 in Fallopian tube after fertilisation

140
Q

what does the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis of males result in:

A

GnRH in hypothalamus –> FSH/LH release in anterior pituitary

  • FSH acts on Sertoli cells –> stimulates initiation of spermatogenesis
  • LH acts on Leydig cells –> stimulates testosterone secretion (facilitates spermatogenesis)
141
Q

how does testosterone inhibit LH secretion (negative feedback mechanism)

A
  1. acts on hypothalamus to decrease secretion of GnRH

2. acts directly on ant pit gland to decrease LH response to GnRH

142
Q

what do Sertoli cells release

A

protein hormone INHIBIN: acts on ant pit to inhibit release of FSH

143
Q

what does the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis of females result in:

A

GnRH in hypothalamus –> FSH/LH release in anterior pituitary

  • FSH/LH –> stimulate oestrogen/progesterone release –> both have pos/neg feedback with hypothalamus/ant pit
144
Q

after puberty, what happens to GnRH, GHRH (hypothalamus) and FSH, LH, GH (growth hormone)

A

increase

145
Q

list some physical changes at puberty for males

A

9-14 yrs

  • testicular enlargement (1st sign)
  • facial, pubic, axillary hair growth
  • growth spurt
  • acne, body odour and mood changes
  • spermatogenesis begind
146
Q

list some physical changes at puberty for females

A

8-14 yrs

  • breast development (1st sign)
  • pubic, axillary hair growth
  • slight growth spurt
  • acne, body odour and mood changes
  • menarche (2.5 yrs after start of puberty)
147
Q

when does pregnancy begin

A

not at fertilisation but after implantation (1 week after fertilisation)

148
Q

what are contraceptives

A

birth control methods that work prior to implantation

149
Q

define menopause

A

cessation of menstruation, usually btwn 48-52 yrs when ovaries stop releasing eggs

150
Q

what are the 8 steps of menopause

A
  1. depletion of primordial follicles (approx 40 yrs)
  2. decrease in follicular oestrogen prod
  3. gradual increase in FSH/LH (bc of lack of neg feedback from oestrogen)
  4. inhibit decline (further FSH increase)
  5. increase in FSH = rapid increase in oestrogen secretion from existing follicles
  6. shorter menstrual cycles
  7. as fewer follicles remain, increase in FSH no longer stimulates oestrogen increase (6-12m pre-menopause)
  8. decreased oestrogen and lack of ova = menopause
151
Q

what are some signs of menopause (4 typesish)

A

vasomotor: flushes, sweats, palpitations
psychological: irritability, depression, loss of libido

UG/skin: vaginal/skin dryness, brittle hair/nails

osteoporosis: less bone tissue (reg by oestrogen)

(SALMA) Physiology (12 decks)

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