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Human Biology > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What produces gametes?

A

Meiosis

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2
Q

Where is sperm produced?

A

In the seminiferous tubules in the testes.

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3
Q

What do the prostate gland and seminal vesicles do to help sperm?

A

They secrete fluids that maintain the mobility and viability of the sperm.

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4
Q

What do the interstitial cells produce?

A

The hormone testosterone.

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5
Q

What is the female gamete and where is it found?

A

The gamete is the ova and they are found in the ovaries.

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6
Q

What is each ovum surrounded by that protects it and secrets hormones?

A

A follicle

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7
Q

Where are mature ova released into to await sperm?

A

The oviduct

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8
Q

When a mature ova is fertilised what is formed?

A

A zygote

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9
Q

What controls the onset of puberty, sperm production and the menstrual cycle?

A

Hormones.

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10
Q

What does the hypothalamus secret at puberty?

A

Releaser hormones

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11
Q

What two hormones does the pituitary gland release in females?

A

Follicle stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone.

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12
Q

What two hormones does the pituitary gland release in males?

A

Follicle stimulating hormone and interstitial cell stimulating hormone.

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13
Q

What does FSH promote in males?

A

Sperm production in the seminiferous tubules in the testes.

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14
Q

What does ICSH stimulate?

A

The interstitial cells in the testes to produce testosterone.

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15
Q

What does testosterone do?

A

Testosterone also stimulates sperm production and activates the prostate gland and seminal vesicles to produce their fluid secretions.

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16
Q

How is overproduction of testosterone prevented?

A

By a negative feedback mechanism. High testosterone inhibits the secretion of FSH and ICSH from the pituitary gland, resulting in a decrease in the production of testosterone by the interstitial cells.

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17
Q

How long does the menstrual cycle take approximately?

A

28 days

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18
Q

Which day of menstrual cycle is regarded as menstruation?

A

Day 1

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19
Q

What does FSH stimulate in females?

A

The development and maturation of a follicle surrounding the ovum and the production oestrogen by the follicle.

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20
Q

What oestrogen stimulate?

A

The repair and proliferation of the endometrium, preparing it for implanting as well as affecting the consistency of the cervical mucus making it more easily penetrated by the sperm.

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21
Q

What does a peak level of oestrogen stimulate?

A

A surge in the secretion of LH by the pituitary gland.

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22
Q

What does the surge in LH trigger?

A

Ovulation

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23
Q

What is ovulation?

A

Ovulation is the release of an egg (ovum) from a follicle in the ovary and usually occurs around the midpoint of the menstrual cycle.

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24
Q

What does LH stimulate?

A

The development of the corpus luteum from the follicle and stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone.

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25
Q

What does progesterone promote?

A

Further development and vascularisation of the endometrium preparing it for implantation if fertilised.

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26
Q

What do high levels of oestrogen and progesterone inhibit?

A

The secretion of FSH and LH by the pituitary gland, which prevents further follicles from developing.

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27
Q

What does the lack of LH at the end of the menstrual cycle lead to?

A

The degeneration of the corpus luteum with a subsequent drop in progesterone levels, leading to menstruation.

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28
Q

If fertilisation occurs what happens to the corpus luteum?

A

It does not degenerate and progesterone levels remain high.

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29
Q

What type of fertility do men show and why?

A

Continuously fertility as they continuously produce sperm due to the constant levels of pituitary hormones.

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30
Q

What type of fertility do women show and why?

A

Cyclical fertility as they are only fertile for a few days each menstrual cycle.

31
Q

When is a women most fertile?

A

A few days before until one or two days after ovulation.

32
Q

How can time of ovulation be estimated?

A

A slight rise in body temperature (about 0.5*c) on the day of ovulation and the thinning of cervical mucus (becomes thin and watery).

33
Q

What may cause infertility in women?

A

Failure to ovulate, which is usually the result of a hormone imbalance.

34
Q

How is ovulation stimulated?

A

By drugs that prevent the negative feedback effect of oestrogen on FSH secretion. Or by drugs which mimic then action of oestrogen and progesterone.

35
Q

What can ovulation drugs cause?

A

Super ovulation which can result in multiple births or be used to collect ova for IVF programmes.

36
Q

What is artificial insemination?

A

AI is a treatment of infertility in which seman is is inserted into the female reproductive tract. (Several sperm samples are collected and combined).

37
Q

When is AI useful?

A

When a male has a low sperm count.

38
Q

What happens in AI if a male partner is infertile/sterile?

A

A donor may be used.

39
Q

What does in vitro fertilisation involve?

A

IVF involves the surgical removal of eggs from the ovaries after hormone stimulation, mixing with sperm to achieve fertilisation, incubation of zygotes and uterine implantation.

40
Q

What is IVF used in conjunction with?

A

Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD).

41
Q

What does PGD identify?

A

Single gene disorders and chromosome abnormalities.

42
Q

In IVF what are sperm and eggs mixed in?

A

A culture dish.

43
Q

How long is the fertilised egg incubated for in IVF?

A

Until it has formed at least 8 cells.

44
Q

What infertility treatment is used when mature sperm are defective or low in number?

A

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).

45
Q

What does ICSI involve?

A

The head of a sperm being drawn into a needle and injected directly into the egg to achieve fertilisation.

46
Q

List some physical contraceptive methods.

A

Barrier methods (condom, diaphragm), intra-uterine devices and sterilisation procedures.

47
Q

What is the oral contraceptive pill?

A

A chemical method of contraception, containing a combination of synthetic oestrogen and progesterone that mimic negative feedback, preventing the release of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland.

48
Q

What does the progesterone-only (mini) pill do?

A

Causes the thickening of the cervical mucus preventing sperm entry and fertilisation.

49
Q

What does the morning-after pill prevent?

A

Ovulation or implantation.

50
Q

What does antenatal screening identify?

A

The risk of a disorder

51
Q

What are the two types of ultrasound scans?

A
  • Dating scan

- Anomally scan

52
Q

What is a dating scan and when does it take place?

A

A dating scan is an ultrasound scan that determines pregnancy stage and the due date. It is called out between 8 and 14 weeks into the pregnancy.

53
Q

What is an anomally scan and when does it take place?

A

An anomally scan is an ultrasound scan that detects serous physical abnormalities in the foetus. It is carried out between 18 and 20 weeks into the pregnancy.

54
Q

What do routine blood and urine tests monitor?

A

The concentrations of marker chemicals.

55
Q

What happens when a marker chemical is measured at the wrong time during a blood or urine test?

A

It can lead to a false negative result.

56
Q

If an artificial marker chemical concentration is measured during a blood or urine test what happens next?

A

Diagnostic testing to determine if the foetus actually has a medical condition.

57
Q

What are the two types of diagnostic tests?

A
  • Amniocentesis

- Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

58
Q

What is amniocentesis and when is it carried out?

A

Amniocentesis is a diagnostic test that uses a small amount of amniotic fluid from the amniotic sac surrounding the foetus to check for genetic disorders. It can be carried out at 14-16 weeks.

59
Q

What is CVS and when is it carried out?

A

CVS is a diagnostic test that tests a sample of cells from the mothers placenta for genetic disorders. It can be carried out at 8 weeks but has a higher risk of miscarriage.

60
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

A karyotype shows an individuals chromosomes arranged as homologous pairs.

61
Q

What are pedigree charts used for?

A

To analyse patterns of inheritance in genetic screening and counselling.

62
Q

What are alleles?

A

Forms of the same gene.

63
Q

What does homozygous mean?

A

Individuals have two copies of the same gene.

64
Q

What does heterozygous mean?

A

Individuals have copies of two different alleles.

65
Q

What is an autosomal recessive disorder?

A

A disorder which only affects an individual when they have two alleles with the disorder. E.g. cystic fibrosis

66
Q

What is an autosomal dominant disorder?

A

A disorder that affects anyone with at least one copy of the disorder. E.g. Huntington’s Disease.

67
Q

What is an autosomal incomplete dominance disorder?

A

A disorder where someone with two alleles of the disorder are seriously affected whereas someone with just one allele of the disorder are only mildly affected. E.g. sickle cell anaemia

68
Q

What is a sex-linked recessive disorder?

A

A disorder that involves the sex chromosomes and men are more affected than women (XhY and XHXh). E.g. haemophilia

69
Q

What are postnatal screening tests?

A

Tests that are carried out after the birth of a child to detect conditions or abnormalities.

70
Q

What can postnatal diagnostic testing be used to detect?

A

Metabolic disorders such as phenylketonuria. (PKU)

71
Q

What is PKU?

A

PKU is an inborn error of metabolism caused by an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. In PKU a substitution mutation means that the enzyme which converts phenylalanine to tyrosine is non-functional.

72
Q

How is PKU most commonly tested for?

A

Using a ‘heel prick test’ which is where a sample of blood is drawn from a pin prick in the heel of the newborn.

73
Q

What happens is PKU is not detected soon after birth?

A

The babies mental development could be affected.

74
Q

What happens to individuals with PKU?

A

They are placed on a restricted diet that lacks the amino acid phenylalanine.

Human Biology (6 decks)

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