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Human Biology > Human Cells > Flashcards

Human Cells Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a somatic cell?

A

A somatic cell is any cell in the body other than cells involved in reproduction. They are diploid cells and the divide by mitosis to form more somatic cells.

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2
Q

What is a germline stem cell?

A

A germline stem cell divides by mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces more diploid germline cells. And meiosis produces haploid gametes.

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3
Q

Explain the process of meiosis.

A

Firstly the homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated and then the pairs of chromatids are separated.

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4
Q

What is cellular differentiation?

A

Cellular differentiation is the process by which a cell express certain genes to produce proteins characteristics for that type of cell. Cellular differentiation allows a cell to carry out specialised functions.

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5
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Stem cells are unspecialised somatic cells that can divide to make copies of themselves (self-renew) and make cells that differentiate into specialised cells of one or more types.

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6
Q

Name the two types of stem cells found in mammals.

A

Embryonic stem cells

Tissue stem cells

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7
Q

What is meant by pluripotent?

A

Pluripotent- stem cells that have the potential to make all differentiated cell types of the body.

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8
Q

What is meant by multi potent?

A

Stem cells that that can differentiate into all the types of cell found in a particular tissue.

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9
Q

Are tissue stem cells mulitpotent of pluripotent?

A

Mulipotent

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10
Q

Name some therapeutic uses of stem cells?

A

The repair of damaged or diseased organs or tissues. They are also used in corneal repair and the regeneration of damaged skin.

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11
Q

What does stem cell research provide?

A

Information on how cell processes such as cell growth, differentiation and gene regulation work.

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12
Q

What are cancer cells?

A

Cancer cells are cells which divide excessively because they don’t respond to regulatory signals.

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13
Q

What does the uncontrolled cell division of cancer cells result in?

A

A mass of abnormal cells called a tumour.

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14
Q

What happens if cells within a tumour fail to attach to each other ?

A

They may spread through the body and cause a secondary tumour.

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15
Q

What is metabolism?

A

Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that take place in cells.

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16
Q

What is a metabolic pathway?

A

A metabolic pathway is a series of stepwise chemical reactions that are controlled by enzymes.

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17
Q

What are the three types of steps in metabolic pathways?

A
  • reversible
  • irreversible
  • alternative routes
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18
Q

What are the two different types of reactions?

A

Anabolic and catabolic

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19
Q

What is an anabolic reaction?

A

Anabolic reactions build up large molecules from small molecules and require energy. (Small-big)

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20
Q

What are catabolic reaction?

A

Catabolic reactions break down large molecules into smaller molecules and release energy.

21
Q

What is an induced fit?

A

Induced fit occurs when the active site changes shape to better fit the substrate after the substrate binds.

22
Q

What is the name for the beefy required to initiate a chemical reaction?

A

Activation energy

23
Q

Do enzymes lower or rise the activation energy?

A

Lower

24
Q

What is a competitive enzyme inhibitor?

A

A competitive enzyme inhibitor is an enzyme inhibitor that binds to the active site of the enzyme, blocking the substrate from binding.

25
Q

How can competitive inhibition be reversed?

A

By increasing substrate concentration.

26
Q

What is a non-competitive enzyme inhibitor?

A

A non-competitive enzyme inhibitor binds away from the active site, changing the shape of the enzymes active site and preventing the substrate from binding.

27
Q

Can increasing substrate concentration reverse a non-competitive inhibitor?

A

No

28
Q

What is feedback inhibition?

A

Feedback inhibition occurs when the end product in the metabolic pathway reaches a critical concentration. The end product inhibits and earlier enzyme, blocking the pathway and so prevents further synthesis of the end product.

29
Q

What is respiration?

A

Respiration is a series of metabolic pathways that brings about the realise of energy from foodstuff (glucose).

30
Q

What is glycolysis?

A

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm.

31
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

Phosphorylation is a process which is enzyme controlled where a phosphate group (Pi) is added to a molecule.

32
Q

What are the two stages of glycolysis?

A
  • energy investment stage (takes in 2 ATP)

- energy pay-off (releases 4 ATP)

33
Q

What enemy me releases H+ ions from the substrate?

A

Dehydrogenase

34
Q

What happens to the H+ ions after glycolysis and the critic acid cycle?

A

They are transported by NAD to form NADH to the electron transport chain.

35
Q

What is required for respiration to continue to the citric acid cycle.

A

Oxygen.

36
Q

Explain the critic acid cycle.

A

In aerobic conditions pyruvate is broken down into carbon dioxide and an acetylene group. The acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to be transferred to the citric acid cycle as acetyl coenzyme A. The acetyl group from coenzyme A combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate. Enzyme controlled steps in the CAC then generate ATP and release CO2. Dehydrogenase enzymes once again remove H+ along with electrons and pass them onto NAD.

37
Q

Where are the hydrogen ions and electrons from NADH passed to?

A

The electron transport chain on the inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae) .

38
Q

What is the electron transport chain?

A

A series of carrier proteins attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane.

39
Q

Explain the process of the electron transport chain.

A

Electrons are passed along the electron transport chain releasing energy which allows hydrogen ions to be pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The return flow of ions back through the membrane protein ATP synthase results in the synthesis of ATP. Hydrogen ions and electrons combine with oxygen to form water.

40
Q

How many ATP are produced from one molecule of glucose?

A

38 (two from glycolysis and 36 from electron transport chain)

41
Q

What happens when muscle cells do not receive sufficient oxygen?

A

The electron transport chain cannot take place and instead the pyruvate is converted into lactate.

42
Q

What does accumulation of lactate cause?

A

Muscle fatigue

43
Q

When is the oxygen dept repaid? And what occurs?

A

When exercise is complete. This allows respiration to provide the energy required to convert lactate back to pyruvate and glucose in the liver.

44
Q

Explain lactate metabolism.

A

The conversion of pyruvate to lactate involves the transfer of hydrogen from the coenzyme NADH, produced during glycolysis, to pyruvate in order to produce lactate. This regenerates the NAD to maintain ATP production through glycolysis.

45
Q

What are the two types of skeletal muscle fibre?

A

Fast-twitch and slow-twitch.

46
Q

Explain slow-twitch muscle fibres.

A
  • contract slowly
  • for long periods of time
  • relay on aerobic respiration
  • many mitochondria
  • large blood supply
  • high myoglobin concentration
  • storage fuels = fats
  • activities such as long distance running (endurance)
47
Q

Explain fast-twitch.

A
  • contract quickly
  • for short periods of time
  • glycolysis only
  • few mitochondria
  • low blood supply
  • low myoglobin concentration
  • storage fuel = glycogen
  • ## activities such as sprinting and weightlifting
48
Q

What is haemoglobin?

A

In red blood cells and stores oxygen.

49
Q

What is myoglobin?

A

Has a higher affinity than haemoglobin thus why it is able to receive oxygen from the blood supply.

Human Biology (6 decks)

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