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Animal and Plant Biology II > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A
  • offspring inherits all genetic material from a single parent
  • Clone (not always)
  • Formed by mitotic division
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2
Q

what is sexual reproduction?

A
  • Offspring inherits genetic material from two parents
  • Genetically unique individual
  • Different from the parents and their siblings
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3
Q

what are the 3 forms of asexual animal reproduction?

A
  1. Forming a bud or protrusion
  2. fragmentation
  3. parthenogenesis
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4
Q

describe forming a bud, or a protrusion

A

bud, or protrusion, that eventually breaks off to form a new organism → eg hydra → simple mitotic divisions → bud is identical to the parent

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5
Q

describe fragmentation

A

splitting of one organism into pieces, each of which develops into a new individual → eg starfish → will eventually reach the original size

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6
Q

describe parthenogenesis

A

females produce eggs that are not fertilised by divide by mitosis and develop into new individuals → eg komodo dragon → mother produces eggs that are diploid → diploid egg would undergo division → offspring would be genetically identical to the mother

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7
Q

what is meitotic parthenogenesis?

A
  • some types of parthenogenesis which use meiosis → not necessarily genetically identical
  • komodo dragon gave birth to offspring despite not being in contact with another komodo dragon
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8
Q

what are the features of sexual reproduction?

A
  • Meiosis and fertilisation
  • Segregation of homologous chromosomes → generation of haploid gametes
  • Fertilisation → one male and one female gamete fuse to form a diploid zygote
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9
Q

what is the female sexual reproductive cell?

A

ova

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10
Q

what is the male sexual reproductive cell?

A

spermatozoa

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11
Q

what are the disadvantages of sexual reproduction?

A
  1. Finding and attracting mates takes time and energy

2. Slower increase in population size

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12
Q

how does sexual reproduction lead to genetic diversity?

A
  • During meiotic division there is recombination
  • Random segregation of homologous chromosomes
  • Fusion of two genetically unique gametes
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13
Q

what are the advantages of sexual reproduction?

A
  1. Allows for rare beneficial mutation arising in different organisms can be brought together
  2. Harmful mutations can be removed more quickly → not all mutations are given to all of the offspring
  3. Mechanism of defence parasites → a lot of genetic diversity more likely that some members of the population will be resistant
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14
Q

why is the phylogenetic quite young in evolutionary terms?

A

Any population that arose earlier would have died couldn’t have adapted to the environmental changes

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15
Q

what organism can reproduce both sexual and asexually?

A

Daphnia

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16
Q

describe reproduction in a daphnia

A

Type of reproduction depends on environmental conditions
Can form cysts to resist harsh conditions
Parthenogenetic cycle → mitosis → can produce both female and male offspring
Favourable conditions → parthenogenesis
When it gets colder and less food → sexual reproduction

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17
Q

what are the 2 sexual reproduction strategies?

A
  1. external fertilisation

2. internal fertilisation

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18
Q

describe external fertilisation

A

Gametes are released into the environment and then fertilised
Many animals who live in water do this
To increase chances of fertilisation = large gamete number, release of gametes in the same location and at the same time
Animals with external fertilisation are usually r-strategists

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19
Q

describe internal fertilisation

A
  • adaptation for living on land
  • can be oviparous
  • vivparous
  • usually k-strategists
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20
Q

what is meant by oviparous?

A

egg laying → contains amnion allows the embryo to develop in an aqueous environment → yolk sac has nutrients to support development → allantois which collects waste metabolic products → chorion surrounds the entire egg → surrounded by a hard shell

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21
Q

what is meant by viviparous?

A

giving birth to live young → can exchange via the placenta → nutrients sent through and waste products sent out

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22
Q

what are r-Strategists?

A
  • Production of large numbers of offspring without provision of a lot of parental care
  • Evolve in unstable, changing, unpredictable environments
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23
Q

what are k-Strategists?

A
  • Production of few offspring and provision of a lot of parental care
  • Evolve in stable, unchanging, predictable environments with limited resources
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24
Q

what is the role of the male reproductive system?

A

production and delivery of sperm

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25
Q

where are male gametes produced?

A

in the testes - which are located in the scrotum

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26
Q

where are male gametes stored?

A

travel to the epididymis - sperm matures and can be store heere

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27
Q

what happens the sperm during ejaculation?

A

move via the vas deferens into the penis

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28
Q

how does the sperm move in the male reproductive system?

A
  • doesnt swim
  • controlled by contractions
  • smooth muscle in the walls of the vas deferens
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29
Q

what happens as sperm move?

A

substances are added by glands

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30
Q

what is the seminal vesicle?

A

releases a protein and sugar rich fluid which is added to the sperm - provides nutrients and energy

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31
Q

what is the prostate gland?

A

secretes an alkaline fluid - counteracts the acidity of the female reproductive system

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32
Q

what is the bulbourethral gland?

A

secretes a fluid which lubricates the urethra and facilitates the passage of the sperm

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33
Q

what are the tubes inside of the testes?

A

seminiferous tubules - sperm develop inside of here

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34
Q

what are found inside the seminiferous tubules?

A

sperm precurosr cells and sperm which are released into the lumen

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35
Q

what happens as sperm mature?

A

they move closer and closer towards the lumen of the seminiferous tubules

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36
Q

what toher cells can be found in the seminiferous tubules?

A

Sertoli cells

myoid cells

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37
Q

what do sertoli cells do?

A

nourish and protect the sperm. regulate spermatogenesis

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38
Q

what are myoid cells?

A

contractile cells. involved in transport along the seminiferous tubule

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39
Q

how much sperm do males produce per day?

A

200 - 300 million

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40
Q

what is spermatogenesis?

A

process by which haploid spermatozoa develop from germ cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis

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41
Q

where does spermatogenesis start?

A
  • primordial germ cell (in embryo)
  • gives rise to spermatogonium (these are stem cells)
  • starts self-renewal
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42
Q

what happens in spermatogenesis during puberty?

A
  • in addition to self-renewing they give rise to primary spermatocyte
  • goes through meiotic division
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43
Q

what does the first meiotic division in spermatogenesis result in?

A

secondary spermatocyte

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44
Q

what does the second meiotic division in spermatogenesis result in?

A

spermatid

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45
Q

what does the spermatid mature into?

A

the sperm

46
Q

why do males never run out of sperm?

A

because the stem cell population keeps renewing

47
Q

what are the 3 main areas of the sperm structure?

A
  1. Head
  2. Midpiece
  3. Tail
48
Q

what is the head structure of the sperm?

A

Contains haploid nucleus → DNA

Tip → acrosome → golgi derived structure which is important for fertilisation → contain digestive enzymes

49
Q

what is the midpiece structure of the sperm?

A

Energy is provided by lots of mitochondria

Used for the swimming movement of the sperm

50
Q

what is the tail structure of the sperm?

A
  • Contains a structure known as an axoneme → consists of microtubules that can slide against each → when they slide this causes the bending of the tail which means the sperm can swim
  • This sliding of microtubules requires energy
51
Q

what is the function of female reproductive system?

A

production of eggs and support the developing embryo

52
Q

where are eggs produced?

A

ovaries

53
Q

where are the eggs released to from the ovaries?

A

move through the oviduct into the uterus

54
Q

what happens to the egg if there is no fertilisation?

A

leave via the vagina

55
Q

what happens to the egg if there is fertilisation?

A
  • occurs inside the oviduct

- sperm has to travel to find the egg

56
Q

what is the start of the production of eggs?

A
  • primordial germ cell in the embryo
  • give rise to the oogonium in the embryo
  • self renew for a while
57
Q

when in the production of eggs do they stop self renewing?

A
  • in the embryo

- give rise to a finite number of primary oocyte

58
Q

what happens to the primary oocyte?

A

starts the first meiotic division - arrest in prophase

59
Q

what happens in puberty in the production of eggs?

A
  • only one primary oocyte a month completes division to for a secondary oocyte and a polar body
  • secondary oocyte much bigger than the polar body
60
Q

what happens to the polar body?

A

degrades

61
Q

what happens to the secondary oocyte?

A
  • contians most of the material present in the cytoplasm
  • continues development
  • goes through a second meiotic division
  • arrests again
  • only completed during fertilisation
62
Q

describe the interaction between oocytes and follicle cells in the ovaries?

A
  • oocytes surrounded by follicle cells
  • oocytes with follicle cells are known as the follicle
  • find several follicles in different stages of maturations
  • oocytes are released and follicle cells stay behind
  • forms a structure known as the corpus luteum
63
Q

what is the structure of an oocyte?

A
  • can see the polar body
  • surrounded by a glycoprotein layer
  • some follicle cells are released with the oocyte
64
Q

what is the zona pellucida?

A

glycoprotein layer.

65
Q

what is the role of zona pellucida?

A

important for sperm-egg recognition and stops more than one sperm fertilising an egg

66
Q

what is the corona radiata?

A

follicle cells that are released with the oocyte

67
Q

what is function of the corona radita?

A

send nutrients to the oocyte → when released its important to attract sperm to the oocyte → produces chemo attract that tell the sperm where to swim too

68
Q

how are gametes contorlled?

A

by hormones released from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland

69
Q

what hormones does the hypothalamus release?

A

releases GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)

70
Q

what does GnRH stimulate?

A

FSH and LH to be released from the anterior pituitary gland

71
Q

what is FSH?

A

follicle stimulating hormone

72
Q

what is LH?

A

luteinizing hormone

73
Q

what type of hormones are FSH and LH?

A

gonadotropins - they act on the gonads

74
Q

how is sperm production stimulated?

A

stimulated by Sertoli cells in response to testosterone and FSH

75
Q

describe the hormonal control in the release of a sperm in the male reproductive system

A
  • GnRH - blood stream - pituitary gland
  • Release of FSH and LH
  • LH acts on leydig cells
  • Leydig cells produce testosterone
  • testosterone and FSH act on sertoli cells
  • promotes spermatogenesis
76
Q

where are leydig cells found?

A

in between the seminiferous tubules

77
Q

other than promoting spermatogenesis what other role does testosterone have?

A
  • affects production of LH and FSH
  • acts on the anterior pituitary gland
  • inhibits LH and FSH aswell as GnRH
  • negative feeedback loop
78
Q

why is hormone control of the female reproductive system more complicated?

A

due to the mestrual cycle

79
Q

what are the 2 phases of the menstrual cycle?

A
  1. Follicular phase

2. Luteal phase

80
Q

Describe the hormonal control of the female reproductive system.

A
  • start = low levels of LH and FSH
  • follices mature, release increasing amounts of estradiol
  • high levels = stimulates LH and FSH
  • LH surge causes ovulation
  • follicle cells that remain in the ovary secrete progesterone
  • high levels of estradiol causes the uterine lining to thicken
  • high levels of progestoerone maintain the thickened uterine lining
  • if it drops the corpus luteum and therefore uterus lining degrades
81
Q

what is estradiol?

A

an oestrogen

82
Q

what affect does low levels of oestrogen have on FSH and LH?

A

negative effect on production

83
Q

how is the uteruls lining maintained during fertilisation?

A

corpus luteum is maintain and prevented from degrading

84
Q

how is the corpus luteum prevented from degrading?

A
  • hCG → human chorionic gonadotropin
  • Produced after fertilisation by the developing embryo to maintain the corpus luteum so progesterone is produced
  • Later on in pregnancy the placenta takes over
85
Q

how does the oocyte move along the oviduct?

A

muscle contraction and cilia

86
Q

how does the sperm reach the oviduct?

A

mediated by contractions of the female reproductive syste,

87
Q

what is capacitation?

A
  • substance present in the female reproductive tract change the sperm
  • change composition of the proteins present on the surface
  • activates it - more motile
  • sperm can only fertilise after capacitation
88
Q

what happens to the sperm when it reaches the oviduct?

A

has to start actively swimming

89
Q

what are the 2 mechanism that attract sperm?

A
  1. Chemotaxis

2. Thermotaxis

90
Q

what is chemotaxis?

A
  • Cells that surround the egg release chemoattractant
  • Sperm detects these and swims towards them
  • Main attractant is progesterone
91
Q

what is thermotaxis?

A
  • This part of the body is slightly warmer

- Sperm can sense the temperature gradient and swim towards that part of the body

92
Q

what happens when the sperm reaches the egg?

A

needs to penetrate the outer layers so the sperm and egg can fuse

93
Q

what is the first layer of the oocyte and how does the sperm get through?

A
  • barrier of follicle cells

- releases digestive enzymes

94
Q

how does the sperm move through the 2 outer layers?

A

releases hydrolytic enzymes from acrosomes - needs to move through the zona pellucida

95
Q

what happens when the sperm meets the membrane of the oocyte?

A
  • fuses
  • causes the oocyte to complete meiosis II
  • blocks the entrance of other sperm
96
Q

how does the oocyte block the entry of another sperm?

A

fusion triggers the release of substances found in vesicles → content is exocytosed to the outside and change the zona pellucida so other sperm cannot go through

97
Q

What are the stages of human development?

A
  1. Cleavage stage
  2. Compaction
  3. Blastocyst formation
  4. Gastrulation
  5. Oranogenesis
  6. Organs formed
98
Q

what is the cleavage stage?

A

set of cell divisions that occur is not associated with an overall growth of the embryo → with each division the cells become smaller and smaller (become multicellular)

99
Q

what is the compaction stage?

A

around the 16 cell stage → surface appears much more smooth → start to express more cell adhesion molecules → bind more tightly to each other

100
Q

what is the blastocyst formation?

A
  • fluid filled cavity at the centre of the embryo
  • 2 different cell types
  • embryo implants into the uterine lining
  • has to hatch from the zona pellucida
101
Q

what are the 2 different cell types in the blastocyst?

A
  • inner cell mass

- trophoblast cells

102
Q

what is the inner cell mass?

A

give rise to all the tissues of the developing embryo

103
Q

what are trophoblast cells?

A

form part of the placenta → secrete enzymes that can digest a hole in the zona pellucida and so it can hatch out

104
Q

what is gastrulation?

A
  • inner cell mass differentiates into epiblast and hypoblast
  • cavity forms on top of the cell layers
  • all 3 germ layers are formed
  • cells move underneath epiblast to form the different layers
105
Q

what is the epiblast

A

give rise to all tissues

106
Q

what is the hypoblast

A

transient structure

107
Q

what are the 3 germ layers?

A

ectoderm. mesoderm. endoderm

108
Q

what is organogenesis?

A
  • 3 germ layers give rise to all the organs of the developing embryo
  • occurs from around week 3-week 8
109
Q

what does the ectoderm give rise to?

A

outer layers of the skin, nervous system, posterior pituitary gland, cornea and lens of the eye

110
Q

what does the mesoderm give rise to?

A

muscle, bone, connective tissue, circulatory system, kidneys, gonads

111
Q

what does the endoderm give rise to?

A

lining of the respiratory tract, lining of the digestive tract, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, thyroid gland

112
Q

what is preimplantation development?

A

Embryo moves along the oviduct mediated by muscle contraction and cilia
In the uterus the blastocyst hatches and implants into the uterus lining

Animal and Plant Biology II (5 decks)

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